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. 2020 Jul 16;11:3561. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-17370-7

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Operando in-plane high-resolution neutron radiographic images of water in the gas diffusion layers, catalyst layers, and the radiation-grafted ETFE-BTMA AEM in operating at: (a) 3.0 A cm⁻² with anode/cathode dew points of 54/56 °C; (b) 1.5 A cm⁻² with anode/cathode dew points of 54/56 °C; (c) 3.0 A cm⁻² with anode/cathode dew points of 52/54 °C; (d) 1.0 A cm⁻² with anode/cathode dew points of 52/54 °C and 140 kPa back pressure; (e) qualitative through-plane water distribution plots extracted from high-resolution images. The intensity indicates the water thickness inside the MEA. The operando cells used in the neutron beam (1.2 cm² active area) were constructed with a 0.70 mg_PtRu cm⁻² PtRu/C anode, a Pt/C cathode at 0.60 mg_Pt cm⁻², and a radiation-grafted ETFE-based AEI powder ionomer and ETFE-BTMA AEM (hydrated thickness = 50 μm). The cell temperatures were maintained at 60 °C. The full length of images are shown in Supplementary Fig. 7.