Table 4:

Adjusted Odds of Depression in Ghana Based on Life-Course Residence

Covariates	OR (95% CI)
Life-Course Residence^a
Rural-Rural-Rural	Ref
Rural-Rural-Urban	1.76 (0.75–4.16)
Rural-Urban-Urban	0.75 (0.28–2.03)
Rural-Urban-Rural	0.62 (0.13–2.88)
Urban-Rural-Rural	1.01 (0.27–3.77)
Urban-Urban-Rural	1.09 (0.51–2.32)
Urban-Urban-Urban	0.80 (0.50–1.26)
Sex
Male	Ref
Female	1.43 (1.09–1.90)^*
Age
50–59	Ref
60–69	1.27 (0.87–1.87)
70–79	1.29 (0.82–2.03)
80+	1.52 (0.86–2.68)
Education Level
None	Ref
Some Primary	1.25 (0.82–1.91)
Primary Completed	0.85 (0.51–1.40)
Secondary Completed	1.65 (1.06–2.58)^*
Post-Secondary Completed	1.28 (0.47–3.48)
Ethnicity
Akan	Ref
Ewe	0.51 (0.26–0.98)
Ga-Adangbe	0.62 (0.36–1.07)
Gur/Northern	1.18 (0.69–2.02)
Other	0.77 (0.46–1.29)
Ever Moved	0.52 (0.33–0.83)^**
Employment Status
Currently Working	Ref
Never Worked	0.19 (0.03–1.47)
Not Working	1.62 (1.19–2.20)^**
Permanent Income Quintile
1^st	Ref
2^nd	1.58 (1.08–2.30)^*
3^rd	1.02 (0.66–1.58)
4^th	1.08 (0.69–1.70)
5^th	0.82 (0.51–1.30)
Recent Household Death	2.30 (0.91–5.79)
Functional Disability	1.00 (0.98–1.02)
Cognitive Performance	0.93 (0.89–0.96)^***

Note. Analyses account for the clustered and stratified design.

Life-course categories represent childhood-adulthood-current residence. The urban-rural-urban category dropped out of the analysis due to an absence of depression cases.

p<0.05,

^**

p<0.01,

^***

p<0.001