Table 3.
Changes in infant dietary intake over 12 months by group
| Model p values1 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intervention n = 159 Mean (95% Cl)b |
Standard Care n = 174 Mean (95% Cl)2 |
Between group differences (95% Cl)3 |
Grp | Time | Grp × time | |
| Fruit intake, no. types overpast 7 d4 | 0.79 | 0.0001 | 0.198 | |||
| Baseline | 0.48 (0.40, 0.56) | 0.41 (0.33, 0.49) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 0.87 (0.77, 0.99) | 0.97 (0.85, 1.1) | 0.09 (−0.06, 0.24); p = 0.25 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 1.1 (0.94, 1.2) | 1.2 (1.1, 1.4) | 0.15 (−0.03, 0.33); p = 0.10 | |||
| Vegetable intake, no. types overpast 7 d4 | 1. | 0.12 | 0.001 | 0.02 | ||
| Baseline | 3.0(2.3, 3.7) | 2.6(1.9,3.2) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 7.4 (6.5, 8.2) | 8.4 (7.6, 9.2) | 1.1 (−0.06, 2.2); p = 0.06 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 10.0 (9.0, 11.1) | 1. (11.0, 12.9) | 2.0 (0.53, 3.4); p = 0.007 | |||
| Meat/fish, no. times overpast 7 d5 | 0.62 | 0.0001 | 0.16 | |||
| Baseline | 0.55 (0.295, 0.804) | 0.44 (0.20, 0.68) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 1.5 (1.3, 1.6) | 0.007 (−0.22, 0.23); p = 0.21 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 2.9 (2.6, 3.2) | 3.4 (3.1, 3.7) | 0.45 (0.01, 0.89); p = 0.04 | |||
| ‘Non-core’ food, no. times overpast 7 d5 | 0.09 | 0.0001 | 0.24 | |||
| Baseline | 0.72 (0.15, 1.3) | 0.75 (0.21, 1.3) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 2.9 (2.3, 3.6) | 3.4 (2.8, 4.0) | 0.41 (−0.48, 1.3); p = 0.37 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 6.6 (5.8, 7.4) | 7.6 (6.8, 8.4) | 0.98 (−0.15, 2.1); p = 0.09 | |||
| Fast food, no. times overpast 7 d5 | 0.64 | 0.0001 | 0.11 | |||
| Baseline | 0.11 (0.02,0.20) | 0.02 (−0.06, 0.11) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 0.17 (−0.26, −0.9) | 0.32 (−0.40, −0.23) | 0.14(0.02, 0.26); p = 0.03 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 0.54 (0.40, 0.67) | 0.72 (0.59, 0.84) | 0.17 (−0.01, 0.36); p = 0.06 | |||
| Sweetened beverages, no. times overpast 7 d5 | 0.85 | 0.0001 | 0.29 | |||
| Baseline | 0.11 (−0.03.0.24) | 0.11 (−0.02,0.23) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 0.14 (−0.04, 0.31) | 0.24 (0.13,0.36) | 0.10 (−0.10, 0.30); p = 0.21 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 0.82 (0.60, 1.1) | 0.69 (0.52, 0.86) | −0.14 (−0.42, 0.15); p = 0.31 | |||
| Breastmilk, no. times over past 24 h6 | 0.93 | 0.000 | 0.92 | |||
| Baseline | 3.1 (2.9, 3.4) | 3.1 (2.9, 3.3) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | −1.3 (1.0, 1.6) | −1.3 (−1.6, −1.0) | 0.002 (−0.41, 0.41); p = 0.99 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | −2.2 (−2.5, −1.9) | −2.1 (−2.5, −1.8) | 0.09 (−0.37, 0.54); p = 0.71 | |||
| Formula, no. times overpast 24 h6 | 0.31 | 0.0001 | 0.15 | |||
| Baseline | 2.5(2.2,2.7) | 2.3(2.1,2.6) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | −0.79(0.44, 1.3) | −0.31 (−0.63,0.01) | 0.47 (0.004, 0.94); p = 0.05 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | −2.1 (−2.4, −1.7) | −1.9 (−2.3,−1.6) | 0.16 (−0.36, 0.67); p = 0.56 | |||
| Juice, no. times overpast 24 h6 | 0.05 | 0.0001 | 0.13 | |||
| Baseline | 0.32 (0.16,0.48) | 0.29 (0.14,0.45) | ||||
| Change from baseline to 6 months | 0.74 (0.57,0.91) | 1.1 (0.88, 1.3) | 0.34 (0.07, 0.60); p = 0.01 | |||
| Change from baseline to 12 months | 1.6 (1.3, 1.8) | 1.8 (1.5,2.0) | 0.20 (−0.12, 0.52); p = 0.22 | |||
Abbreviation: Grp, group.
Model p values based on linear mixed-effects models assuming compound symmetry and including time, group and group × time as fixed effects, pre-specified covariates at fixed effects (i.e., study entry breastfeeding, infant sex, age, ethnicity and baseline value), and clinic and subject as random effects. Mixed models were intent-to-treat and included all 333 participants (Standard Care N = 174 and Intervention N = 159).
Least-squares mean (95% CI), which is the model-estimated response within each treatment group from baseline to 6 or baseline to 12 months.
Model estimated group differences (i.e., group × time fixed-effect parameter estimates) in outcome variables from baseline to 6 months or baseline to 12 months.
Mothers indicated whether their infant consumed any of a list of 18 fruits and 26 vegetables over the past 7 days; frequency of intake was not assessed by this measure.37
Mothers reported the frequency of infant intake of food and drinks over the past 7 days (from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 + times), including ‘non-core’ foods (e.g., peanut butter, sugar-sweetened cereals, sweet cakes, muffins, doughnut, potato chips, candies, chocolate, ice cream, pastry, cookies, French fries, hot dogs), sweetened beverages and fast food (from McDonalds, KFC, Pizza, Chinese or other).37
Mothers reported infant intake of breastmilk, formula and fruit juice over past 24 h.37