Table 2.

Summary of epigenetic and molecular alterations in male germline and in placenta linked to paternal environmental exposures.

Animal model	Paternal experience	Epigenetic mechanism		References
SPERM EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH BREAST CANCER IN OFFSPRING
C57BL/6 mice	Obesity-inducing diet	miRNAs	e.g., miR-146b, miR-29a, miR-296-5p, and miR-874	Fontelles CC et al. (6)
Sprague–Dawley rats	Corn oil- or lard-based high-fat diets	miRNAs	e.g., miR-10 b, miR-219-1-3P, miR-376a, miR-1897-5p, 146b, 29a, and 200c	Fontelles CC et al. (7)
C57BL/6 mice	Low-protein diet	DNA methylation	e.g., Ano8, Hmga1, and Gnas	da Cruz RS et al. (40)
		sncRNAs	e.g., miR-10b, miR-10a, let-7c, let-7d, tRNA-SeC-TCA, tRNA-ACG, and tRNA-Ile-TAT
C57BL/6 mice	DDT	miRNAs	e.g., miR-10b, miR-205-5p, miR-204, miR-3535, miR-182, and let-7e	da Cruz RS et al. (41)
SPERM EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER DISORDERS IN OFFSPRING
C57/Bl6:129S6/SvEvTac hybrid mice	Chronic stress	sncRNAs	e.g., miR-29c, miR-30a, miR-30c, miR-32, miR-193-5p, miR-204, miR-375, miR-532-3p, and miR-698	Rodgers AB MC et al. (59)
C57BL/6 mice	Restraint stress	DNA methylation	Sfmbt2	Ling Wu et al. (71)
FVB/NJ	Low-protein diet	sncRNAs	e.g., tRNA-Gly-CCC, tRNA-Gly-TCC, tRNA-Gly-GCC, tRF-Lys-CTT, tRF-His-GTG, and let-7	Sharma U CC et al. (72)
C57BL/6J	High-fat diet	sncRNAs	e.g., miR-10a, miR-10b, tRNA-Glu, tRNA-Gly, and tRNA-Val	Chen Q YM et al. (73)
Paternally induced placenta effects			Molecular alteration
C57BL/6	Low protein diet	Gene expression	Nutrient transporters: Atp2b1, Slc38a2, Slc2a1, and Slc2a4; DNA methyltransferase 1 and 3L (Dnmt1 and Dnmt3L) Paternally imprinted: Mest and Snrpn	Watkins AJ SS et al. (74)
C57BL/6	High-fat diet	Gene expression	Cxcr4 in both gender, and Ppar-alfa and Casp12 in male placentas only	Binder NK et al. (75)