TABLE 1.

Schistosome-derived products with immunomodulatory activity^a

Immune cells	Schistosome-derived product(s)	Immunomodulatory effect	Reference(s)
Macrophages	S. japonicum SEA	Promotes M2 macrophage polarization via STAT6 and PI3K pathways but does not inhibit M1 activation	36–42
	Sj-CP1412	Enhances M2 polarization, characterized by increased CD206, Arg1, and IL-10, depending on its RNase activity	38
	S. mansoni omega-1	Enhances TLR2-mediated secretion of IL-1β	39
	S. mansoni LPC	Drives M2 macrophage differentiation and triggers M2 macrophage profile and upregulated arginase 1, Chi3l3, and TGF-β	43
	Sm16	Inhibits the generation of M1 macrophages induced by LPS or IFN-γ; delays antigen processing by macrophages	45
	Sj16	Impairs LPS-induced activation of macrophages; inhibits proliferation, phagocytosis, and cell migration in vitro; increases the level of IL-10	41
	Exosomes and extracellular vesicles	Stimulates M1 macrophage polarization or induces a mixture of M1 and M2 macrophages	26–28
Dendritic cells	S. mansoni omega-1	Primes DCs for Th2 polarization and stimulates an anti-inflammatory response in DCs	29, 30, 55, 56
	S. mansoni LNFPIII	Impairs the migration of DCs; drives DC maturation with a Th2-promoting phenotype	34, 49, 50
	S. japonicum CP1412	Suppresses LPS-induced DC maturation	38
	Sj16	Inhibits LPS-mediated DC maturation; increases expression of IL-10 and contributes to induction of Tregs	32–34, 51
	Sj-C	Reduces the expression of MHC-II and suppresses and inhibits MHC-II-restricted antigen presentation	54
	Sm29	Stimulates maturation and activation of DCs	52
	Schistosomal lysophosphatidylserine	Activates TLR2 and primes DCs to stimulate the generation of IL-10-producing Tregs	53
Neutrophils	SmKI-1	Impairs neutrophil migration and function	57
ILC2	S. mansoni omega-1	Increases ILC2 and Th2 cytokines	60
T cells	S. mansoni omega-1	Induces Th2 cytokines; promotes generation of Tregs	29, 30, 39, 55, 70
	Sj-CP1412	Enhances Th2 responses; promotes differentiation of Tregs	38
	Sj-C	Enhances Th2 responses; induces increased Tregs	54
	LNFPIII	Promotes Th2 polarization by stimulating the maturation of Th2-promoting DCs	42
	Sj16	Promotes the differentiation of Tregs	34
B cells	IPSE/α-1 derived from S. mansoni	Induces Bregs	72

^aDCs, dendritic cells; IPSE, immune-polarizing side effects; LPC, lysophosphatidylcholine; LNFPIII, lacto-N-fucopentaose III; SEA, soluble egg antigen; Sj-C, cysteine protease inhibitor from S. japonicum.