Table 2.
Overview characteristics of available evidence from randomized controlled trials on exercise training interventions and executive function
| Study | Grouping | EF Task | Exercise characteristics | Sample characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Albinet et al. [64] |
Swimming (n = 21) Stretching (n = 20) |
Stroop task RNG Hayling task RST N-back DST Plus-Minus task DLT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: 40–65% HRR Type: AE Time: 40 min Length: 21 weeks |
Age: 60–75 Sex: Both PF: NR CS: Normal |
| Albinet et al. [65] |
Aerobic (n = 12) Stretching (n = 12) |
WCST |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 40–60% HRR Type: AE Time: 40 min Length: 12 weeks |
Age: 65–78 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Coetsee and Terblanche [66] |
Resistance (n = 22) Aerobic interval (n = 13) Aerobic continuous (n = 13) Control (n = 19) |
Stroop test |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 75–100% 10RM (RE) 90–95% HRmax (AE—interval) 70–75% HRmax (AE—continuous) Type: RE and AE Time: NR (RE) 16 min (90–95% AE—interval) 47 min (70–75% AE—continuous) Length: 16 weeks |
Age: 55–75 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Doi et al. [67] |
Dance (n = 67) Control (n = 67) |
TMT |
Freq.: 1 day/week Int.: NR Type: Dance Time: 60 min Length: 40 weeks |
Age: > 70 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: MCI |
| Erickson et al. [68] |
Aerobic (n = 60) Control (n = 60) |
Spatial memory |
Freq.: NR Int.: 60–75% HRmax Type: AE Time: 10–40 min Length: 12 months |
Age: 65.5–67.6 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Ferreira et al. [69] |
Walking (n = 22) Control (n = 22) |
WCST |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 60–80 HRR Type: AE Time: 40–50 min Length: 6 months |
Age: 60–79 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Gothe et al. [70] |
Yoga (n = 61) Control (n = 57) |
RST N-back Task switching |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: Yoga Time: 60 min Length: 8 weeks |
Age: 62.02 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Gothe et al. [71] |
Yoga (n = 61) Control (n = 57) |
Task switching running memory span N-back |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: Yoga Time: 60 min Length: 8 weeks |
Age: 55–79 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Gothe et al. [72] |
Yoga (n = 61) Control (n = 57) |
TMT |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: Yoga Time: NR Length: 8 weeks |
Age: 62 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Iuliano et al. [73] |
Resistance (n = 20) Cardiovascular (n = 20) Postural (n = 20) Control (n = 20) |
RPM Stroop TMT |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 80–85% 1RM (RE) 70–80% HRR (AE) Type: RE and AE Time: 30 min Length: 12 weeks |
Age: 66.96 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Kimura et al. [74] |
Strength (n = 65) Control (n = 85) |
Task switching |
Freq.: NR Int.: 60% 1RM Type: Combined exercise Time: 1.5 h Length:12 weeks |
Age: > 65 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Klusmann et al. [75] |
Exercise (n = 91) Control (n = 76) |
VFT Stroop Test TMT |
Freq.: NR Int.: NR Type: Combined exercise Time: 90 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 73.6 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Lam et al. [76] |
Physical (n = 147) Social (n = 131) |
LDRT Category Fluency test Digit span TMT |
Freq.: 1 day/week Int.: NR Type: Combined exercise Time: NR Length: 48 weeks |
Age: > 60 Sex: Both PF: NR CS: MCI |
| Lazarou et al. [77] |
Intervention (n = 89) Control (n = 65) |
VFT ROCFT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: NR Type: Dance Time: 60 min Length: 40 weeks |
Age: 55–75 Sex: NR PF: Fit CS: MCI |
| Leckie et al. [78] |
Walking (n = 47) Control (n = 45) |
Task switching |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 60–75% HRR Type: AE Time: 40 min Length: 48 weeks |
Age: 66.82 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Liu-Ambrose et al. [79] |
RT-1 (n = 20) RT-2 (n = 15) BAT (n = 17) |
Flanker task |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: NR Type: RE Time: NR Length: 48 weeks |
Age: 65–75 Sex: F PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Liu-Ambrose et al. [80] |
RT-1 (n = 52) RT-2 (n = 54) BAT (n = 49) |
Stroop test TMT VDS |
Freq.: 1–2 days/week Int.: 6–8 RM Type: RE Time: 60 min Length: 48 weeks |
Age: 65–75 Sex: F PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Lu et al. [81] |
Tai Chi (n = 15) Control (n = 16) |
Auditory Stroop test |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: Tai Chi Time: 60 min Length: 16 weeks |
Age: > 65 Sex: F PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Lu et al. [81] |
Dumbbell (n = 22) Control (n = 23) |
TMT Digit Span |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: RE Time: 60 min Length: 12 weeks |
Age: > 65 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: MCI |
| Mavros et al. [82] |
PRT (n = 27) Control (n = 27) |
Category fluency COWAT |
Freq.: 2–3 days/week Int.: 80–92% 1RM Type: RE Time: 60–100 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: > 55 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: MCI |
| Nagamatsu et al. [83] |
Aerobic (n = 30) Resistance (n = 28) Control (n = 28) |
SWMT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: 6–8 RM (RE) 70–80% HRR (AE) Type: RE and AE Time: 60 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 70–80 Sex: F PF: Fit CS: MCI |
| Nguyen and Kruse [84] |
Tai Chi (n = 48) Control (n = 48) |
TMT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: NR Type: Tai Chi Time: 60 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 60–79 Sex: Both PF: NR CS: Normal |
| Nishiguchi et al. [85] |
Exercise (n = 24) Control (n = 24) |
TMT |
Freq.: NR Int.: NR Type: AE Time: 90 min Length: 12 weeks |
Age: > 60 Sex: Both PF: NR CS: Normal |
| Nocera et al. [86] |
Spin (n = 10) Control (n = 8) |
VFT |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 50–75% HRR Type: AE Time: 20–45 min Length: 12 weeks |
Age: 65–89 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Nouchi et al. [87] |
Combination (n = 32) Control (n = 32) |
VFT Stroop test Digit Span |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 60–80% HRmax Type: Combined exercise Time: 30 min Length: 4 weeks |
Age: > 60 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Oken et al. [51] |
Exercise (n = 47) Yoga (n = 44) Wait list (n = 44) |
Stroop test |
Freq.: 1 day/week and 5 days/week Int.: 70% HRmax NR Type: AE Yoga Time: 60 min (AE) 90 min (Yoga) Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 65–85 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Prehn et al. [88] |
AE (n = 11) NAE (n = 18) |
TMT Digit span Stroop test AVLT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: 80%AT Type: AE Time: 45 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 50–80 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Smiley-Oyen et al. [89] |
Cardio (n = 52) Flexibility (n = 53) |
GNG Stroop test WCST |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 65–80% HRR Type: AE Time: 25–30 min Length: 40 weeks |
Age: 65–79 Sex: Both PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| Suzuki et al. [90] |
Exercise (n = 25) Control (n = 25) |
VFT Category fluency Stroop test |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: 60% HRmax Type: Combined exercise Time: 90 min Length: 48 weeks |
Age: 65–93 Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: MCI |
| Sungkarat et al. [91] |
Tai Chi (n = 33) Control (n = 33) |
TMT Digit span |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: NR Type: Tai Chi Time: 50 min Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 68.3 (Tai Chi), 67.5 (Control) Sex: Both PF: Sedentary CS: MCI |
| Tsai et al. [38] |
Closed-skill (n = 23) Open-skill (n = 23) Control (n = 23) |
N-back Task switching |
Freq.: 3 days/week Int.: 70–75% (AE) NR (CE) Type: AE and CE Time: 30 min (AE) 40 min (CE) Length: 24 weeks |
Age: 60–80 Sex: M PF: Sedentary CS: Normal |
| Vaughan et al. [92] |
Intervention (n = 25) Control (n = 23) |
TMT LNS Stroop Test COWAT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: NR Type: Combined exercise Time: 60 min Length: 16 weeks |
Age: 65–75 Sex: F PF: Fit CS: Normal |
| van Uffelen et al. [93] |
Walking (n = 77) Placebo activity (n = 75) |
VFT |
Freq.: 2 days/week Int.: 3 MET Type: AE Time: NR Length: 48 weeks |
Age: 70–80 Sex: M and F PF: Fit CS: MCI |
NR not reported, Freq. frequency, Int. intensity, PF physical fitness level, CS cognitive status, M male, F female, MCI mild cognitive impairment, AE aerobic exercise, RE resistance exercise, CE coordination exercise, RNG the random number generation, GNG go and no go, WCST Wisconsin card sorting test, TMT trail making test, RST running span task, VFT verbal fluency test, RPM Raven’s progressive matrices Test, DST the dimension-switching task, DLT the digit-letter task, SWMT Spatial Working Memory task, VDS verbal digit span, LNS the letter-number sequencing, COWAT control oral word association test, ROCFT Rey osterrieth Complex Figure Test, LDRT the list learning delayed recall test, AVLT auditory verbal learning test, AT anaerobic threshold, MET metabolic equivalents