Table 3.
Summary of exercise training intervention effect on executive function (EF). Subgroups denote the variables from EF domain, exercise prescription variables and sample characteristics
| Overall | Q(df) | n ES | Hedges’ g (95% CI) | SE | I2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q(106) = 260.09, p < 0.01 | 107 | 0.21* (0.17, 0.26) | 0.02 | 59.25 |
| Q(df) | n ES | Hedges’ g (95% CI) | SE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF domains | Q(2) = 4.33, p > 0.05 | |||
| Inhibition | 27 | 0.14* (0.04, 0.24) | 0.05 | |
| Updating/WM | 42 | 0.19* (0.12, 0.26) | 0.04 | |
| Shifting | 34 | 0.27* (0.19, 0.36) | 0.04 | |
| Planning | 4 | – | – | |
| Exercise prescription variables | ||||
| Frequency (week) | Q(1) = 10.86, p < 0.05 | |||
| Low (1–2 times) | 46 | 0.15* (0.08, 0.22) | 0.04 | |
| Moderate (3–4 times) | 56 | 0.31* (0.24, 0.38) | 0.04 | |
| Intensity | Q(1) = 2.87 p > 0.05 | |||
| Moderate | 25 | 0.11* (0.00, 0.21) | 0.05 | |
| Vigorous | 44 | 0.22* (0.14, 0.30) | 0.04 | |
| Type | Q(4) = 26.18, p < 0.05 | |||
| Aerobic exercise | 45 | 0.14* (0.06, 0.23) | 0.04 | |
| Resistance exercise | 20 | 0.22* (0.10, 0.33) | 0.06 | |
| Tai Chi and yoga | 14 | 0.38* (0.27, 0.49) | 0.06 | |
| Combined exercise | 18 | 0.10* (0.00, 0.19) | 0.05 | |
| Other forms of exercise | 10 | 0.44* (0.29, 0.60) | 0.05 | |
| Session time | Q(2) = 0.21, p > 0.05 | |||
| Short (≤ 45 min) | 50 | 0.26* (0.18, 0.33) | 0.04 | |
| Moderate (45–60 min) | 39 | 0.26* (0.18, 0.33) | 0.07 | |
| Long (60+ min) | 10 | 0.30* (0.15, 0.44) | 0.07 | |
| Length | Q(2) = 16.64, p < 0.05 | |||
| Short (1–3 month) | 29 | 0.32* (0.23, 0.41) | 0.05 | |
| Medium (4–6 month) | 49 | 0.26* (0.18, 0.34) | 0.04 | |
| Long (> 6 month) | 29 | 0.09* (0.01, 0.17) | 0.04 | |
| Sample characteristics | ||||
| Age | Q(2) = 20.64, p < 0.05 | |||
| Young-old (55–65 yrs) | 11 | 0.30* (0.18, 0.43) | 0.06 | |
| Mid-old (66–75 yrs) | 84 | 0.25* (0.19, 0.31) | 0.03 | |
| Old-old (> 76 yrs) | 10 | − 0.05 (− 0.17, 0.08) | 0.06 | |
| Sex | Q(2) = 5.38, p > 0.05 | |||
| Only male | 14 | 0.33* (0.18, 0.48) | 0.08 | |
| Only female | 21 | 0.29* (0.17, 0.40) | 0.06 | |
| Both | 72 | 0.18* (0.12, 0.23) | 0.03 | |
| Physical fitness level | Q(1) = 10.80, p < 0.05 | |||
| Sedentary | 46 | 0.33* (0.25, 0.41) | 0.04 | |
| Fit | 48 | 0.16* (0.09, 0.23) | 0.03 | |
| Cognitive status | Q(1) = 11.44, p < 0.05 | |||
| Normal | 85 | 0.26* (0.20, 0.32) | 0.03 | |
| MCI | 22 | 0.08* (0.00, 0.17) | 0.05 | |
n ES numbers of effect size, SE standard error, I2 I square, yrs years, EF executive function, WM working memory, MCI mild cognitive impairment
*Represents p < 0.05 when comparing the effect size to zero