Table 1:

Results, Side Effects, and Complications from Neuromodulation Therapy

Neuromodulation Therapy	Principal Results from Studies	Potential Side Effects and Complications
CSD	Improved EF and 6MWT; suppressed HF progression	Horner’s syndrome, pneumothorax, hemothorax, hypotension, harlequin unilateral facial flushing, and hyperhidrosis
RND	Improved EF, 6MWT, NYHA class; decreased NT pro-BNP	Renal artery stenosis, renal artery dissection, UTI, and femoral pseudoaneurysms
VNS	Inconclusive; ANTHEM-HF reported improvements in EF, NYHA class, 6MWT, and MLWHFQ score, while INOVATE-HF and NECTAR-HF did not	Dysphonia, coughing, oropharyngeal pain, vocal cord paralysis, and lead fracture and malfunction
TNS	Reduced AF burden; in acute STEMI, EF increased, while VT, wall motion index, NT pro-BNP decreased	Electrode malfunction
CCM	Reduced HF hospitalization and CV death; improved pVO2, 6MWT, MLWHFQ score, NYHA class	Lead fracture, infection, and pericardial effusion
BAT	Improved 6MWT and MLWHFQ score; decreased NT pro-BNP	Localized numbness, dysphonia, and dysphagia
Spinal cord stimulation	Inconclusive; SCS HEART reported improved LV function and exercise tolerance, while DEFEAT-HD did not	Lead fracture, lead fracture, implant site hematoma, neck or back pain, and postprocedure decompensated HF

BAT: baroreceptor activation therapy; CCM: cardiac contractility modulation; CSD: cardiac sympathetic denervation; EF: ejection fraction; HF: heart failure; NYHA: New York Heart Association; NT-proBNP: N-terminal prohormone B-type natriuretic peptide: RND: renal nerve denervation: SCS: spinal cord stimulation; TNS: tragus nerve stimulation; UTI: urinary tract infection; VNS: vagus nerve stimulation.