Table 4. Meta-analysis of the associations of food items, nutrients, and dietary indices with cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and lipid profile.
| Variable | CVD | Elevated BP/hypertension | Elevated/high TC | Elevated/high total TG | Low HDL-C | High LDL-C | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | N (I2) | OR/HR (95% CI) | ||
| Food items | |||||||||||||
| Fruits | 4 (84.4%) | 0.52 (0.37–0.73)* | 1 (NA) | 0.85 (0.34–2.13) | 2 (0%) | 0.84 (0.73–0.96) | 2 (0%) | 0.94 (0.84–1.06) | 1 (NA) | 1.08 (0.95–1.23) | |||
| Vegetables | 6 (27.3%) | 1.06 (0.92–1.22)† | 1 (NA) | 0.65 (0.28–1.49) | 2 (44.7%) | 0.94 (0.76–1.15) | 2 (0%) | 1.07 (0.95–1.21) | 1 (NA) | 1.04 (0.92–1.18) | |||
| Fish | 2 (4.1%) | 1.02 (0.94–1.11) | 3 (56.9%) | 0.83 (0.66–1.04)† | 2 (0%) | 0.78 (0.60–1.00) | 2 (43.1%) | 1.11 (0.95–1.31) | |||||
| Seafood | 2 (87.7%) | 0.91 (0.44–1.88) | |||||||||||
| Sugar | 2 (5.0%) | 1.09 (0.93–1.28) | 2 (0%) | 1.24 (1.05–1.48) | 2 (0%) | 1.07 (0.92–1.25) | 3 (52.2%) | 1.07 (0.89–1.29)* | 2 (0%) | 0.87 (0.74–1.03) | |||
| Eggs | 1 (NA) | 1.14 (0.87–1.49) | 3 (69.8%) | 0.89 (0.79–0.99)* | 1 (NA) | 1.08 (0.97–1.21) | 2 (87.2%) | 0.85 (0.71–1.03) | 2 (34.4%) | 0.84 (0.78–0.91) | 1 (NA) | 1.08 (0.95–1.21) | |
| Meat | 3 (78.3%) | 1.02 (0.76–1.37)* | 1 (NA) | 0.68 (0.56–0.83) | 3 (0.9%) | 1.14 (1.06–1.22)* | |||||||
| Milk and dairy | 1 (NA) | 0.26 (0.14–0.50) | 8 (68.8%) | 0.82 (0.76–0.89)* | 8 (77.7%) | 0.82 (0.76–0.89)* | |||||||
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | 5 (0%) | 1.20 (1.09–1.33)† | 3 (0%) | 1.20 (1.03–1.41)* | 3 (87.7%) | 1.20 (0.80–1.80)* | |||||||
| Coffee | 4 (57.2%) | 0.71 (0.52–0.97)* | 4 (48.0%) | 0.90 (0.83–0.98)* | 4 (9.5%) | 0.84 (0.78–0.90)* | 4 (76.6%) | 0.96 (0.84–1.08)* | |||||
| Fried foods | 1 (NA) | 1.56 (1.14–2.15) | 1 (NA) | 1.22 (0.92–1.62) | 1 (NA) | 0.85 (0.66–1.10) | |||||||
| Colorful food (rice, beans, fruits, vegetables) | 2 (0%) | 0.95 (0.83–1.08) | 2 (39.1%) | 1.02 (0.86–1.21) | 2 (0%) | 1.01 (0.89–1.14) | |||||||
| Instant noodles | 2 (38.6%) | 1.06 (0.78–1.44) | |||||||||||
| Nuts | 1 (NA) | 0.65 (0.30–1.40) | |||||||||||
| Macronutrients | |||||||||||||
| Carbohydrates | 4 (54.3%) | 1.04 (0.85–1.28)* | 4 (0%) | 1.24 (1.08–1.42)* | 4 (45.5%) | 1.22 (1.04–1.44)* | 3 (15.9%) | 0.89 (0.75–1.05)* | |||||
| Fat | 1 (NA) | 0.83 (0.73–0.93) | 2 (0%) | 1.33 (1.15–1.53) | 1 (NA) | 0.94 (0.93–0.96) | 1 (NA) | 0.85 (0.77–0.95) | 2 (0%) | 1.34 (1.15–1.56) | |||
| Protein | 1 (NA) | 1.01 (0.67–1.53) | 1 (NA) | 0.45 (0.30–0.68) | 1 (NA) | 0.47 (0.32–0.68) | |||||||
| Micronutrients | |||||||||||||
| Flavones | 1 (NA) | 0.94 (0.79–1.12) | |||||||||||
| Magnesium | 1 (NA) | 0.87 (0.71–1.05) | |||||||||||
| Potassium | 1 (NA) | 0.76 (0.56–1.04) | 1 (NA) | 0.99 (0.68–1.43) | |||||||||
| Calcium | 1 (NA) | 0.72 (0.48–1.08) | |||||||||||
| Vitamin A | 1 (NA) | 0.99 (0.96–1.03) | 1 (NA) | 0.98 (0.95–1.01) | 1 (NA) | 0.97 (0.95–1.00) | 1 (NA) | 1.01 (0.95–1.02) | |||||
| Vitamin B2 | 2 (0%) | 1.12 (0.96–1.30) | 1 (NA) | 1.10 (0.81–1.51) | |||||||||
| Vitamin B6 | 2 (67.9%) | 0.63 (0.32–1.22) | |||||||||||
| Vitamin C | 1 (NA) | 0.96 (0.93–1.00) | 1 (NA) | 1.58 (1.42–1.76) | 1 (NA) | 1.01 (0.97–1.04) | 1 (NA) | 0.98 (0.95–1.02) | |||||
| Dietary indices | |||||||||||||
| Modified Mediterranean diet score | 1 (NA) | 0.98 (0.73–1.33) | 1 (NA) | 0.70 (0.53–0.92) | 1 (NA) | 0.90 (0.71–1.15) | |||||||
| Low-carbohydrate-diet score | 2 (0%) | 0.97 (0.77–1.22) | 2 (0%) | 0.70 (0.58–0.84) | 2 (0%) | 0.76 (0.61–0.95) | 2 (0%) | 0.77 (0.63–0.95) | 2 (69.2%) | 0.79 (0.41–1.51) | |||
| Integrated Korean Dietary Pattern Score | 4 (55.0%) | 0.85 (0.72–1.00)* | 4 (29.6%) | 0.93 (0.82–1.06)* | 4 (45.9%) | 1.03 (0.90–1.18)* | |||||||
Bold and italic text indicates significant associations.
CVD, cardiovascular disease; BP, blood pressure; TC, total cholesterol; TG, triglycerides; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; N, number of individual population; I2, heterogeneity I-square; OR, odds ratio; HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; NA, not applicable.
The presented data have an “insufficient” level of evidence, except for *“limited” evidence and †“possible” evidence.