Table 2.
Categorical variable with a statistically significant difference between cases and controls within at least one of the participant cohorts (risk factors consistently significant in both cohorts are shown in bold).
| PSS | EUCLID | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | Cases [n (%)] | Controls [n (%)] | X2P-value | Odds ratio (95% CI) | Cases [n (%)] | Controls [n (%)] | X2P-value | Odds ratio (95% CI) |
| Age ≥ 65 |
166 (65.6) |
468 (50.8) |
<0.001 |
1.84 (1.4–2.5) |
80 (63.0) |
156 (37.2) |
<0.001 |
2.40 (1.6–3.5) |
| Medical specialty where the participant was located at the time of the index sample | ||||||||
| Infectious Diseases | 1 (0.4%) |
32 (3.0%) |
0.005 | 0.110 (0.0–0.8) |
20 (12.8%) |
107 (18.5%) |
0.095 | 0.646 (0.4–1.1) |
| Oncology | 53 (21.0%) |
254 (27.6%) |
0.034 | 0.696 (0.5–1.0) |
4 (2.6%) |
24 (4.2%) |
0.481 | 0.602 (0.2–1.8) |
| Renal Medicine/Nephrology | 39 (15.4%) |
85 (9.2%) |
0.005 | 1.792 (1.2–2.7) |
12 (7.7%) |
29 (5.0%) |
0.204 | 1.567 (0.8–3.2) |
| General Surgery | 7 (2.8%) |
7 (0.8%) |
0.017 | 3.715 (1.3–10.7) |
10 (6.4%) |
25 (4.3%) |
0.287 | 1.504 (0.7–3.2) |
| Gastroenterology | 5 (2.0%) |
6 (0.7%) |
0.240 | ns | 12 (7.7%) |
89 (15.4%) |
0.012 | 0.451 (0.2–0.8) |
| Reason for admission | ||||||||
| Malignant neoplasms | 34 (13.5%) |
185 (20.1%) |
0.017 | 0.619 (0.4–0.9) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Renal failure | 21 (8.3%) |
41 (4.5%) |
0.015 | 1.947 (1.1–3.4) |
5 (3.4%) |
14 (2.6%) |
0.574 | 1.331 (0.5–3.8) |
| Bacterial disease (unspecified) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 7 (4.7%) |
5 (0.9%) |
0.005 | 5.368 (1.7–17.2) |
| Primary diagnosis | ||||||||
| Heart disease | 34 (13.5%) |
74 (8.1%) |
0.008 | 1.777 (1.2–2.7) |
5 (3.9%) |
15 (3.1%) |
0.781 | 1.240 (0.4–3.5) |
| Renal failure | 19 (7.5%) |
38 (4.1%) |
0.027 | 1.886 (1.1–3.3) |
7 (5.5%) |
16 (3.4%) |
0.300 | 1.646 (0.7–4.1) |
| Complications of surgical and medical care | 17 (6.8%) |
31 (34.0%) |
0.017 | 2.068 (1.1–3.8) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Bacterial disease (unspecified) |
14 (5.6%) |
51 (5.6%) |
0.977 | 0.999 (0.5–1.8) |
10 (7.9%) |
10 (2.1%) |
0.001 | 3.878 (1.6–9.5) |
| Location of participant before admission | ||||||||
| Home |
134 (53.0%) |
605 (65.7%) |
<0.001 |
0.588 (0.4–0.8) |
102 (72.4%) |
452 (84.8%) |
0.001 |
0.532 (0.4–0.8) |
| Emergency department | 48 (19.0%) |
106 (11.5%) |
0.002 | 1.800 (1.2- 2.6) |
10 (7.1%) |
18 (3.4%) |
0.057 | 2.125 (1.0–4.7) |
| Assisted living | 3 (1.2%) |
1 (0.1%) |
0.033 | 11.040 1.1–106.6) | 3 (2.1%) |
7 (1.3%) |
0.451 | 1.595 (0.4–6.2) |
| Had a previous admission |
129 (51.0%) |
301 (32.7%) |
<0.001 |
1.977 (1.5–2.6) |
85 (53.8%) |
193 (33.0%) |
<0.001 |
2.154 (1.5–3.1) |
| Diagnostic tests | ||||||||
| Tested for CDI before the INDEX sample | 80 (31.6%) |
3 (0.3%) |
<0.001 | 220.345 (53.7–904.5) |
34 (25.0%) |
95 (19.1%) |
0.131 | 1.411 (0.9–2.2) |
| Positive toxin test before the index sample | 9b (3.6%) |
1a (0.1%) |
0.323 | 32.76 (4.13-259.82) |
12b (7.6%) |
2a (2.1%) |
<0.001 | 38.37 (8.89-165.68) |
| Tested for CDI after the INDEX sample | 160 (63.2%) |
252 (27.4%) |
<0.001 | 2.921 (2.1–4.0) |
50 (40.7%) |
88 (19.3%) |
<0.001 | 2.856 (1.9–4.4) |
| Positive toxin test after the index sample | 53 (20.9%) |
1a (0.1%) |
<0.001 | 124.3 (17.0–910.7) |
15 (30.0%) |
4a (4.5%) |
<0.001 | 8.693 (2.6–29.2) |
| Co-morbidities | ||||||||
| Congestive Heart Failure | 134 (53.0%) |
342 (37.1%) |
<0.001 | 1.906 (1.4–2.5) |
22 (15.1%) |
73 (13.9%) |
0.703 | 1.106 (0.7–1.9) |
| Chronic kidney disease | 91 (36.0%) |
216 (23.5%) |
<0.001 | 1.833 (1.4–2.5) |
24 (16.4%) |
60 (11.4%) |
0.100 | 1.534 (0.9–2.6) |
| Peripheral Vascular Disease | 58 (22.9%) |
148 (15.5%) |
0.011 | 1.554 (1.1–2.2) |
27 (18.5%) |
69 (13.1%) |
0.097 | 1.509 (0.9–2.5) |
| Chemotherapy in the 12 weeks preceding the INDEX sample | 47 (18.6%) |
239 (26.0%) |
0.016 | 0.651 (0.5–0.9) |
4 (2.7%) |
43 (8.2%) |
0.026 | 0318 (0.1–0.9) |
| Myocardial Infarction | 43 (17.0%) |
95 (10.3%) |
0.003 | 1.780 (1.2–2.6) |
9 (6.2%) |
23 (4.4%) |
0.380 | 1.442 (0.7–3.2) |
| Renal replacement therapy (e.g. dialysis) within 7 days of index sample |
42 (16.6%) |
82 (8.9%) |
<0.001 | 2.037 (1.4–3.0) |
4 (2.7%) |
15 (2.8%) |
1.000 | 0.963 (0.3–2.9) |
| Diabetes with organ damage | 31 (12.3%) |
57 (6.2%) |
0.001 | 2.117 (1.3–3.4) |
7 (4.8%) |
32 (6.1%) |
0.717 | 0.781 (0.3–1.8) |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 37 (14.6%) |
143 (15.5%) |
0.724 | 0.932 (0.6–1.4) |
23 (15.8%) |
44 (8.3%) |
0.008 | 2.057 (1.2–3.5) |
| Urinary tract infection | 30 (11.9%) |
93 (10.1%) |
0.418 | 1.198 (0.8–1.9) |
21 (14.4%) |
36 (6.8%) |
0.004 | 2.296 (1.3–4.1) |
| Dementia | 8 (3.2%) |
31 (3.4%) |
1.000 | 0.937 (0.4–2.1) |
17 (11.6%) |
26 (4.9%) |
0.003 | 2.544 (1.3–4.8) |
| Chronic obstruction pulmonary disease | 26 (10.3%) |
88 (9.6%) |
0.731 | 1.084 (0.7–1.7) |
17 (11.6%) |
32 (6.1%) |
0.021 | 2.042 (1.1–3.8) |
| Charlson Comorbidity Index | ||||||||
| 0 | 4 (1.6%) |
65 (7.1%) |
– | – | 31 (21.2%) |
163 (30.9%) |
– | – |
| 1 | 7 (2.8%) |
41 (4.5%) |
– | – | 19 (13.0%) |
52 (9.9%) |
– | – |
| 2 | 19 (7.5%) |
110 (11.9%) |
– | – | 8 (8.1%) |
83 (15.7%) |
– | – |
| 3 | 28 (11.1%) |
105 (11.4%) |
– | – | 13 (8.9%) |
59 (11.2%) |
– | – |
| ≥3 vs. <3 |
223 (88.1%) |
705 (76.5%) |
<0.001 |
2.277 (1.5–3.4) |
81 (55.5%) |
229 (43.5%) |
0.009 |
1.627 (1.1–2.4) |
| ≥4 vs. <4 |
195 (77.1%) |
600 (65.1%) |
<0.001 |
1.799 (1.3–2.5) |
68 (46.6%) |
170 (32.3%) |
0.001 |
1.836 (1.3- 2.7) |
|
Jonckheere–Terpstra (ascending ordinal comparison of Charlson Comorbidity index) |
253 (100.0%) |
921 (100.0%) |
<0.001 | n/a |
158 (100) |
584 (100) |
0.0015 | n/a |
| Antibiotics | ||||||||
|
At least one antibiotic (any class) |
240 (85.0%) |
893 (74.7%) |
<0.001 |
1.3 (1.1-1.4) |
106 (67.1%) |
264 (45.3%) |
<0.001 |
1.3 (1.1-1.5) |
| Cephalosporins |
19 (8.9%) |
27 (2.9%) |
0.001 |
2.689 (1.5–4.9) |
28 (13.9%) |
34 (6.8%) |
0.003 |
2.210 (1.3–3.8) |
| Third Generation Cephalosporins | 46 (21.6%) |
120 (13.0%) |
0.037 | 1.483 (1.0–2.2) |
24 (11.9%) |
47 (9.4%) |
0.320 | 1.302 (0.8–2.2) |
| Other betalactams |
15 (7.0%) |
21 (2.3%) |
0.003 |
2.701 (1.4–5.3) |
9 (4.5%) |
6 (1.2%) |
0.016 |
3.847 (1.4–11.0) |
| Glycopeptides | 63 (39.6%) |
86 (9.3%) |
<0.001 | 3.219 (2.2–4.6) |
10 (5.0%) |
35 (7.0%) |
0.318 | 0.693 (0.3–1.4) |
| Fluoroquinolones | 55 (25.8%) |
144 (15.6%) |
0.022 | 1.499 (1.1–2.1) |
35 (17.3%) |
89 (17.2%) |
0.959 | 1.011 (0.7–1.6) |
| Meropenem | 45 (17.8%) |
99 (10.7%) |
0.003 | 1.796 (1.2–2.6) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Other antibiotics | 32 (13.3%) |
44 (4.9%) |
<0.001 | 2.886 (1.8–4.7) |
22 (10.9%) |
63 (12.6%) |
0.535 | 0.850 (0.5–1.4) |
| Sulphonamides | 46 (19.2%) |
147 (16.5) |
0.399 | ns | 4 (2.0%) |
40 (8.0%) |
0.02 | 0.233 (0.1–0.7) |
| Indication for antibiotics | ||||||||
| Infection other than CDI | 133 (31.3%) |
224 (18.4%) |
<0.001 | 2.019 (1.6–2.6) |
83 (52.5) |
133 (22.8) |
<0.0001 | 3.752 (2.599–5.418) |
| Prophylaxis | 63 (14.8%) |
243 (20.0%) |
0.019 | 0.698 (0.5–0.9) |
5 (3.3%) |
28 (9.0%) |
0.033 | 0.349 (0.1–0.9) |
| Pneumonia | 63 (14.8%) |
251 (20.6%) |
0.009 | 0.670 (0.5–0.9) |
38 (25.2%) |
48 (15.3%) |
0.011 | 1.857 (1.1–3.0) |
| Abscess | 1 (0.2%) |
20 (1.6%) |
0.023 | 0.141 (0.0–1.1) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Fever | 68 (16.0%) |
239 (19.6%) |
0.098 | 0.779 (0.6–1.0) |
5 (3.3%) |
25 (11.2%) |
0.004 | 0.272 (0.1–0.7) |
| Neutropenia | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0 (0.0%) |
15 (4.8%) |
0.004 | 1.000 |
| Antibiotic route | ||||||||
| IV | 378 (74.0%) |
1031 (74.3%) |
0.873 | 0.981 (0.8–1.2) |
97 (62.2%) |
241 (73.3%) |
0.013 | 0.600 (0.4–0.9) |
| Oral | 127 (24.9%) |
335 (24.2%) |
0.752 | 1.039 (0.8–1.3) |
57 (36.5%) |
88 (26.8%) |
0.028 | 1.577 (1.0–2.4) |
| Other medications | ||||||||
| PPIs given | 192 (76.9%) |
592 (64.3%) |
0.001 | 1.749 (1.3–2.4) |
61 (48.8%) |
202 (41.4%) |
0.135 | 1.349 (0.9–2.0) |
| Indication for PPIs | ||||||||
| Prophylaxis | 194 (88.2%) |
620 (96.6%) |
<0.001 | 0.265 (0.1–4.8) |
9 (52.9%) |
39 (48.8%) |
0.795 | 1.183 (0.4–3.4) |
| Disease of the esophagus, duodenum and stomach | 17 (7.7%) |
14 (2.2%) |
<0.001 | 3.757 (1.8–7.8) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| At least one GI drug given (other than PPIs) |
162 (64.0%) |
512 (55.6%) |
0.013 | 1.438 (1.1–1.9) |
36 (30.3%) |
144 (32.3%) |
0.672 | 0.910 (0.6–1.4) |
| Indication for GI drugs | ||||||||
| Constipation | 108 (35.0%) |
417 (43.0%) |
0.012 | 0.713 (0.5–0.9) |
1 (5.0%) |
13 (18.3%) |
0.290 | 0.235 (0.0–1.9) |
| Ulcer prophylaxis | 7 (2.3%) |
0 (0.0%) |
<0.001 | 1.000 | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Abdominal pain | 16 (5.2%) |
6 (0.6%) |
<0.001 | 8.774 (3.4–22.6) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Chemotherapy | 13 (4.2%) |
1 (0.1%) |
<0.001 | 42.557 (5.5–326.7) |
n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Prophylaxis | 23 (7.4%) |
101 (10.4%) |
0.125 | 0.692 (0.4–1.1) |
9 (50.0%) |
13 (18.3%) |
0.020 | 3.650 (1.3–10.6) |
| Route of administration for GI drugs | ||||||||
| IV | 86 (24.3%) |
249 (23.0%) |
0.603 | 1.077 (0.8–1.4) |
3 (9.4%) |
26 (28.0%) |
0.050 | 0.267 (0.1–1.0) |
| Oral | 260 (73.5%) |
800 (73.7%) |
0.915 | 0.985(0.8–1.3) | 29 (90.6%) |
64 (68.8%) |
0.018 | 4.380 (1.2–15.6) |
| Surgery and GI interventions | ||||||||
| Had surgery in the preceding 12 weeks |
104 (41.1%) |
259 (28.1%) |
<0.001 |
1.784 (1.3–2.4) |
39 (26.4%) |
82 (15.7%) |
0.003 |
1.920 (1.2–3.0) |
| Elective | 82 (78.1%) |
173 (67.1%) |
0.037 | 1.752 (1.0–3.0) |
20 (60.6%) |
35 (56.5%) |
0.696 | 1.187 (0.5–2.8) |
| Acute | 23 (21.9%) |
85 (33.0%) |
0.037 | 0.571 (0.3–1.0) |
13 (39.4%) |
27 (43.6%) |
0.696 | 0.843 (0.4–2.0) |
| Surgery type | ||||||||
| Vascular surgery | 24 (22.9%) |
28 (10.8%) |
0.003 | 2.444 (1.3–4.5) |
6 (14.0%) |
11 (13.9%) |
0.784 | 1.174 (0.4–3.4) |
| Had a GI intervention | 39 (15.4%) |
53 (5.8%) |
<0.001 | 2.985 (1.9–4.6) |
32 (22.5%) |
79 (15.6%) |
0.054 | 1.569 (1.0–2.5) |
| Nasogastric tube placement | 2 (5.1%) |
11 (20.8%) |
0.038 | 0.206 (0.0–1.0) |
6 (26.1%) |
22 (30.1%) |
0.345 | 0.587 (0.2–1.6) |
| Endoscopy | 27 (69.2%) |
24 (45.3%) |
0.022 | 2.719 (1.1–6.5) |
16 (69.6%) |
39 (53.4%) |
0.951 | 0.974 (0.4–2.2) |
na, data not available as either not collected or wasn't in the top ten for that cohort, so was not analyzed. Variables where there was no significance found between cases or controls in either cohort are not displayed.
a
Indicates control samples with either a previous or subsequent positive test for CDI outside the 8 week window for exclusion in the Univariate analyses.
b
Indicates cases removed from multivariate analyses, to avoid inclusion of potential recurrent cases.
ns, not significant.