Skip to main content
. 2020 Jul 24;6(30):eabb4685. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abb4685

Fig. 1. Eight food manipulation categories and their order of emergence during ontogeny.

Fig. 1

Ninety-seven percent of all observed species (N = 36) and 82% of all observed individuals (N = 128) strictly followed this ontogenetic sequence. As manipulation categories 5 and 6 and categories 7 and 8 emerged at the same time during ontogeny, each of these pairs of categories were merged into one new category (categories V and VI, respectively), resulting in six broad food manipulation categories for subsequent analyses. Species values are listed in table S1. Photo credit: S. A. Heldstab, University of Zurich; macaque picture: Marlen Fröhlich, University of Zurich; second orangutan picture: Zaida K. Kosonen, University of Zurich; chimpanzee pictures: Marlen Fröhlich, University of Zurich and Liran Samuni, Taï Chimpanzee Project.