Table 2.
Statistical analysis results.
| Variables | Phase 1 (NoVRa), mean (SD) | Phase 2 (YesVRb), mean (SD) | df | ANOVAc | t test | P value (Cohen dd) | |||||||||||||
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F test | P value | Partial η2 |
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| STAIe(Form Y-1) score at each time point (TP) |
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TP1 | 44.34 (12.38) | 40.70 (11.06) | 47 | — | — | — | 1.06 | .30 | ||||||||||
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TP2 | 48.03 (12.67) | 41.25 (7.54) | 46.19f | — | — | — | 2.34 | .02 (0.65) | ||||||||||
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TP3 | 39.55 (10.60) | 41.45 (11.69) | 47 | — | — | — | –0.59 | .56 | ||||||||||
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TP4 | 31.17 (9.17) | 34.75 (8.76) | 47 | — | — | — | –1.37 | .18 | ||||||||||
| STAI (Phase) | — | — | 47 | 0.28 | .60 | 0.006 | — | — | |||||||||||
| STAI (Time) | — | — | 3 | 18.40 | <.001 | 0.281 | — | — | |||||||||||
| STAI (Intercept) | — | — | 3 | 4.12 | .008 | 0.081 | — | — | |||||||||||
| TAIgat each TP |
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TP1 | 41.59 (14.07) | 41.89 (12.99) | 46h | — | — | — | –0.77 | .94 | ||||||||||
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TP2 | 42.72 (13.55) | 41.21 (11.58) | 46h | — | — | — | 0.40 | .69 | ||||||||||
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TP3 | 40.62 (13.62) | 41.68 (11.48) | 46h | — | — | — | –0.28 | .78 | ||||||||||
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TP4 | 40.52 (14.40) | 41.79 (12.50) | 46h | — | — | — | –0.32 | .75 | ||||||||||
| TAI (Phase) | — | — | 46h | 0.01 | .94 | <0.001 | — | — | |||||||||||
| TAI (Time) | — | — | 3 | 0.67 | .57 | 0.014 | — | — | |||||||||||
| TAI (Intercept) | — | — | 3 | 1.57 | .20 | 0.033 | — | — | |||||||||||
| ASEiat each TP |
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TP1 | 18.90 (2.43) | 19.20 (3.12) | 47 | — | — | — | –0.38 | .70 | ||||||||||
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TP2 | 18.93 (2.37) | 19.45 (3.10) | 47 | — | — | — | –0.66 | .51 | ||||||||||
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TP3 | 19.79 (2.64) | 19.80 (2.93) | 47 | — | — | — | –0.01 | .99 | ||||||||||
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TP4 | 20.03 (2.76) | 20.55 (2.72) | 47 | — | — | — | –0.65 | .52 | ||||||||||
| ASE (Phase) | — | — | 47 | 0.22 | .64 | 0.005 | — | — | |||||||||||
| ASE (Time) | — | — | 2.62j | 8.98 | <.001 | 0.160 | — | — | |||||||||||
| ASE (Intercept) | — | — | 2.62j | 0.40 | .73 | 0.008 | — | — | |||||||||||
aNoVR: subjects not exposed to the virtual reality simulation.
bYesVR: subjects exposed to the virtual reality simulation.
cANOVA: analysis of variance.
dCohen d effect size is only reported for time point 2 (TP2).
eSTAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.
fLevene’s Test for Equality of Variances found equal variances not assumed; thus, df was changed accordingly.
gTAI: Test Attitude Inventory.
hPhase 2 (YesVR) had 1 participant fail to complete TAI surveys.
iASE: Academic Self-Efficacy Scale.
jMauchly’s test found sphericity assumption violated; thus, df was corrected using Greenhouse-Geisser estimates of sphericity (ε=.88).