Table 1.
Examples of neuroscience evidence that aMCC participates in a wide range of tasks.
| Observation | Task domain | Citations | Example Figure |
|---|---|---|---|
| aMCC is robustly engaged by pain and negative affect. | Pain, Negative affect | (Derbyshire et al., 2004; Vogt, 2005; Shackman et al., 2011; Yarkoni et al., 2011; Lindquist et al., 2012; Lieberman and Eisenberger, 2015) | See Fig.2 in Derbyshire et al., 2004 |
| aMCC functions as a ‘neural alarm’, directing attention toward potential conflicts with enduring survival goals. For example, aMCC is implicated in the experience of hunger, thirst, and breathlessness. | Pain, Negative affect | (Lieberman and Eisenberger, 2015) | See Fig. 6 in Lieberman & Eisenberger, 2015 |
| aMCC activation is associated with a variety of emotions, such as fear, disgust, anger and sadness. | Pain, Negative affect | (Lindquist et al., 2012; Touroutoglou et al., 2015; Raz et al., 2016) | See Fig. 4 in Lindquist et al., 2012 |
| aMCC is anticipating and predicting pending noxious stimulation, so as to prepare avoidance responses. For example, aMCC activity increases as a function of the proximity of a tarantula to the participants’ foot. | Pain, Negative affect | (Mobbs et al., 2010; Vogt, 2016) | See Fig. 2 in Mobbs et al., 2010 |
| aMCC activity in difficult tasks is linked to negative affect during task. For example, aMCC response to error processing tracks within-subject changes in felt frustration. | Pain, Negative affect | (McGuire and Botvinick, 2010; Spunt et al., 2012) | See Fig. 2 in Spunt et al., 2012 |
| The aMCC is engaged by positive experiences, particularly in reward-based decision-making tasks. The aMCC tracks both the magnitude and the probability of predicted rewards. | Reward decision making | (Kouneiher et al., 2009; Lindquist et al., 2012; Bahlmann et al., 2015) | See Fig. 3A in Kouneiher et al., 2009 |
| aMCC integrates reward with motor responses. For example, a reduction in an anticipating reward significantly increases the firing rate of aMCC neurons in a way that is directly linked with the movement ultimately made. | Reward decision making | (Williams et al., 2004) | See Fig. 1 in Williams et al., 2004 |
| The aMCC is sensitive to both increases and decreases in reward. Its signal during reward- decision making approximates an underlying U-shaped function, indicative of signal related to arousal or salience processing. | Reward decision making | (Bush et al., 2002; Rushworth and Behrens, 2008; Bartra et al., 2013) | See Fig. 10 in Bartra et al., 2013 |
| aMCC is engaged by the degree of difficulty in demanding tasks. For example, greater aMCC activity is associated with increased working memory load, more challenging mental arithmetic, memory retrieval over longer delays and more precise visual discrimination. | Effort Cognitive and Motor Control | (Duncan and Owen, 2000; Davis et al., 2005; Cole and Schneider, 2007; Duncan, 2010; Boehler et al., 2011; Duncan, 2013; Engstrom et al., 2013; Fedorenko et al., 2013; Power and Petersen, 2013; Dhanjal and Wise, 2014; Hoffstaedter et al., 2014) | See Fig. 2 in Fedorenko et al. 2013 |
| aMCC plays a role in predicting effort requirements. For example, its activity in learning tasks is modulated by previous trials in a way that speeds responses to trials of equivalent difficulty, and slows them when difficulty levels change. | Effort, Cognitive and Motor Control | (Modirrousta and Fellows, 2008; Sheth et al., 2012) | See Fig. 1 in Sheth et al. 2012 |
| aMCC activates when requirements change, errors are detected, available options are in conflict, novel tasks are encountered or alternative course of actions are being considered. | Effort, Cognitive and Motor Control | (Raichle et al., 1994; Bush et al., 1998; Barch et al., 2001; Ullsperger and von Cramon, 2001; Botvinick et al., 2004; Jessup et al., 2010; Nee et al., 2011; Kolling et al., 2014). | See Fig. 9 in Nee et al., 2011 |
| aMCC signal increases in response to prediction errors. | Effort, Cognitive and Motor Control | (Jocham et al., 2009; Sheth et al., 2012; Kolling et al., 2016) | See Fig. 5 in Jocham et al., 2009 |
| aMCC is engaged in social processing. For example, aMCC activations are observed during the Ultimatum Game, a social interaction task that particularly requires predicting and monitoring the effects of decisions on the behavior of others. | Social Cognition tasks | (Kirk et al., 2011; Apps et al., 2013) | See Fig. 2 in Kirk et al., 2011 |
| The aMCC is a core node of the central autonomic network that calibrates bodily reactions to match anticipated outcomes. | Autonomic reactivity tasks | (Beissner et al., 2013) (Critchley et al., 2000; Critchley et al., 2003; Critchley, 2009; Wager et al., 2009; Hermans et al., 2011; Gianaros and Wager, 2015) | See Fig. 1 in Beissner et al. 2013 |
| aMCC integrates pain, arousal, motivation and cognitive control. | Integrative function | (Shackman et al., 2011; Bahlmann et al., 2015). | See Fig. 2 in Shackman et al., 2011 |