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. 2020 Jun 30;26(4):241–273. doi: 10.1177/1469066720939399

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© The Author(s) 2020

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Figure 4. — Potential energy diagram for an electron in a hydrogen atom in the presence of an applied electric field of 2 x 10¹⁰ V m⁻¹ (2 V Å⁻¹); (a) in free space, (b) near a metal surface. IE: ionization energy of the H atom, Ф: work function of the metal, µ: Fermi level. The dashed lines marked H are the hydrogen atom Coulomb potential in the absence of the field. Solid lines refer to potentials deformed by the external electric field. P_W is the sum of applied plus image potential, P_M is the atom potential. Adapted from Ref. [66] with kind permission. © Elsevier Science Publishers, 1994.