Table 1.

Description of cognitive tasks, cognitive processes the task was designed to test, number of trials conducted per task, number of individuals included in analysis, and number of breeds included in analysis

Task	Description	Cognitive processes	Trials	Total dogs	Total breeds
Eye contact	The owner holds a treat to their face and records if and when the dog breaks eye contact within 90 s	Social engagement	3	4359	65
Arm pointing	The owner places one treat to their right and left, points to one treat location, and records the location the dog first approaches	Social cognition/communication	6	4367	65
Foot pointing	The owner places one treat to their right and left, extends their foot toward one treat location, and records the location the dog first approaches	Social cognition/communication	6	4071	63
Delay of gratification		Inhibition/self-control	6	2826	51
Watching condition	The owner places the treat in front of the dog and verbally commands the dog not to take the treat. The owner records the duration of time until the dog takes the treat, up to 90 s		2	2826	51
Closed eyes condition	Same as above, with the owner closing their eyes		2	2826	51
Turned back condition	Same as above, with the owner turning their back		2	2826	51
Memory vs. pointing	In view of the dog, the owner places a treat under one of two cups, then proceeds to point to the other cup. The owner records which location the dog first approaches	Bias for information from memory vs. communication	6	2346	48
Memory vs. smell	Allowing the dog to see, the owner places a treat under one of two cups, then blocks the dog's view while switching the position of the treat. The owner records which location the dog first approaches	Bias for information from memory vs. olfaction	4	2187	47
Delayed memory	In full view of the dog, the owner places a treat under one of two cups and then waits 60, 90, 120, and 150 s (across four trials) before releasing the dog. Then the owner records which location the dog first approaches	Short-term memory/sustained attention	4	2124	47
Inferential reasoning	The owner appears to place treats under two cups, while only baiting one. The owner raises the empty cup to show it is empty and records which location the dog first approaches	Inferential reasoning/reasoning by exclusion	4	1737	42
Physical reasoning	Blocking the dog's view, the owner places two pieces of folded paper on the floor. The owner places a treat under one paper so that the paper is elevated by the treat while the other paper is flat and records which location the dog first approaches	Physical causality/inferential reasoning	4	1654	40