Table 5.
Multilevel estimates: Prenatal care utilization in Zimbabwe, 2005–2011.
| Variables | Any form of prenatal care | Frequency of visits | First trimester care | Prenatal quality | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds ratio | SE | Odds ratio | SE | Coef | SE | Coef | SE | Odds ratio | SE | Odds ratio | SE | Coef | SE | Coef | SE | |
| Age at birth | 1.171** | (0.058) | 1.168** | (0.058) | 0.100** | (0.031) | 0.095** | (0.034) | 1.081* | (0.036) | 1.078* | (0.036) | 0.093*** | (0.021) | 0.092*** | (0.023) |
| Age at birth squared | 0.997** | (0.001) | 0.997** | (0.001) | −0.002** | (0.001) | −0.001** | (0.001) | 0.999* | (0.001) | 0.999* | (0.001) | −0.001*** | (0.000) | −0.001*** | (0.000) |
| Education (years) | 1.091*** | (0.022) | 1.089*** | (0.022) | 0.083*** | (0.012) | 0.083*** | (0.013) | 1.021 | (0.013) | 1.024 | (0.013) | 0.074*** | (0.008) | 0.073*** | (0.009) |
| Employed | 1.089 | (0.111) | 1.081 | (0.110) | 0.157** | (0.057) | 0.138* | (0.065) | 1.102 | (0.063) | 1.076 | (0.062) | 0.036 | (0.039) | 0.032 | (0.040) |
| Health insurance | 1.868* | (0.565) | 1.817* | (0.550) | 0.684*** | (0.114) | 0.676*** | (0.224) | 1.669*** | (0.175) | 1.682*** | (0.177) | 0.230** | (0.078) | 0.223** | (0.097) |
| Married | 1.784** | (0.343) | 1.684** | (0.327) | 0.627*** | (0.120) | 0.573*** | (0.214) | 1.408* | (0.188) | 1.334* | (0.180) | 0.147 | (0.082) | 0.129 | (0.094) |
| Pregnancy wanted later | 0.724** | (0.072) | 0.731** | (0.073) | −0.259*** | (0.063) | −0.259*** | (0.048) | 0.894 | (0.060) | 0.892 | (0.060) | −0.209*** | (0.043) | −0.206*** | (0.035) |
| Births in last 5 years | 0.475*** | (0.038) | 0.497*** | (0.042) | −0.656*** | (0.054) | −0.583*** | (0.032) | 0.674*** | (0.042) | 0.735*** | (0.048) | −0.365*** | (0.037) | −0.339*** | (0.028) |
| Reads newspapers (at least once a week) | 1.259* | (0.147) | 1.295* | (0.152) | 0.306*** | (0.064) | 0.312*** | (0.088) | 1.139* | (0.075) | 1.172* | (0.078) | 0.239*** | (0.044) | 0.248*** | (0.056) |
| Listen to radio (at least once a week) | 1.326** | (0.133) | 1.347** | (0.135) | 0.294*** | (0.058) | 0.292*** | (0.078) | 1.144* | (0.069) | 1.152* | (0.070) | 0.182*** | (0.040) | 0.187*** | (0.048) |
| Household size | 0.951** | (0.016) | 0.952** | (0.016) | −0.040*** | (0.010) | −0.035*** | (0.010) | 0.978* | (0.010) | 0.979 | (0.010) | −0.015* | (0.007) | −0.014* | (0.007) |
| Low wealth (quintiles 1 &2) | 1.034 | (0.131) | 1.035 | (0.132) | −0.062 | (0.076) | −0.051 | (0.072) | 0.921 | (0.072) | 0.913 | (0.072) | −0.127* | (0.052) | −0.125* | (0.046) |
| High wealth (quintiles 4 & 5) | 0.991 | (0.145) | 1.136 | (0.183) | 0.084 | (0.083) | 0.091 | (0.097) | 0.927 | (0.077) | 1.070 | (0.095) | 0.207*** | (0.058) | 0.237*** | (0.078) |
| Year of survey is 2010/11 | 0.498*** | (0.057) | 0.432*** | (0.080) | −0.491*** | (0.062) | −0.485*** | (0.065) | 0.673*** | (0.041) | 0.905 | (0.101) | 0.119** | (0.046) | 0.040 | (0.078) |
| Community/cluster-level variables | ||||||||||||||||
| Family planning (% in cluster) | 2.712** | (1.043) | 0.768*** | (0.448) | 1.019 | (0.201) | 0.392* | (0.246) | ||||||||
| Christians (% in cluster) | 1.868* | (0.586) | 0.190 | (0.203) | 1.067 | (0.169) | 0.346* | (0.190) | ||||||||
| Log (number of nurses) | 3.932* | (2.094) | 0.840** | (0.699) | 0.575 | (0.199) | 0.695*** | (0.416) | ||||||||
| District hospital | 2.177*** | (0.401) | 0.234* | (0.122) | 1.547*** | (0.145) | 0.294*** | (0.098) | ||||||||
| Log health expenditures | 1.315* | (0.150) | 0.269*** | (0.074) | 1.219*** | (0.069) | 0.127*** | (0.044) | ||||||||
| Number of observations | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | 8453 | ||||||||
| Mean of the dependent variable | 0.926 | 0.926 | 4.456 | 4.456 | 0.225 | 0.225 | 4.060 | 4.060 | ||||||||
| Chi-squared, comparison model | 123.294 | 101.146 | 83.313 | 75.276 | 25.607 | 21.903 | 319.074 | 291.590 | ||||||||
| p-value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | ||||||||
| Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) | 0.047 | 0.044 | 0.101 | 0.096 | ||||||||||||
| Median Odds Ratios | 2.445 | 2.340 | 1.434 | 1.412 | ||||||||||||
| Percent (%) change in MOR or ICC | 4.29% | 6.38% | 1.53% | 4.95% | ||||||||||||
Notes:
***
Significant at 1% level;
**
significant at 5% level;
*
significant at 10% level.
Reported are the odds ratios from a two-level mixed effect logit regression model and their standard errors shown in parentheses. SE = Standard error, CAOEF = Coefficient or marginal effect. The dependent variables “Any form of prenatal care” and “first trimester care “are binary (1/0) indicator variables while frequency of visits and prenatal quality are continuous variables.