Table 2.
Effects of dietary minerals on disease activities of SLE.
| Minerals | Study model | Country | Findings | Year, References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Calcium | Cross-sectional | Spain | Vitamin D-calcium supplementation increased the serum levels of vitamin D, however, do not modify the serum calcium levels rather increased arterial stiffness significantly (IMT; p = 0.041). | 2019, (169) |
| Prospective interventional | Saudi Arabia | Vitamin D-calcium supplementation significantly improved the bone mineral density in vitamin D-deficient SLE patients, however, not significantly attenuated immune markers or disease activity. | 2018, (170) | |
| Case-control | Egypt | There was no significant correlation between SLEDAI score and calcium supplementation (p = 0.861). | 2016, (171) | |
| Animal model | USA | In presence of high-calcium diet, vitamin D supplement markedly suppress inflammatory T-cell activity in experimental MRL/lpr SLE mice. | 2001, (172) | |
| Zinc | Animal model | USA | Zinc restriction reduced autoantibodies (i.e., anti-dsDNA antibody) and lymphoproliferation in MRL/lpr SLE mice. | 2001, (173) |
| Animal model | USA | Zinc-deficient diet retarded autoantibody (i.e., anti-dsDNA antibody) production in NZB/NZW SLE mice. | 1982, (174) | |
| Animal model | USA | Depot-zinc therapy significantly reduced kidney damage in the B/W SLE mice (p < 0.01). | 1981, (175) | |
| Sodium | Cross-sectional | Mexico | A positive correlation was detected between sodium intake and levels of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Treg cells in SLE. | 2018, (176) |
| Prospective | Italy | Due to dietary sodium intake, Th17 and Treg cells significantly decreased (p = 0.01) and increased (p = 0.04), respectively. Additionally, serum IL-9 levels were significantly reduced in SLE patients (p = 0.03). | 2017, (177) | |
| Animal model | China | Excessive intake of sodium in diet aggravated lupus nephritis through SGK1 pathway by significantly increasing the Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg ratios in MRL/lpr SLE mice. | 2015, (178) | |
| Selenium | Animal model | USA | Selenium supplementation leads to impaired differentiation and maturation of macrophages. | (179) |
| Selenium in the drinking water significantly improved the survival rate (p < 0.04) and increased NK cell activity (p < 0.001) of the NZB/NZW SLE mice though there was no effect on autoantibody (i.e., anti-ssDNA antibody) production. | 1988, (180) | |||
| Iron | Animal model | USA | Anemia and incidence of skin lesions were high in severely iron deficient MRL/MPJ-lpr/lpr SLE mice. | 1995, (181) |
| Copper | Double blind, double placebo-controlled trial | Ireland | No significant effect on SLAM-R was observed. | 2004, (182) |
SLEDAI, Systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index; dsDNA, Double stranded DNA; ssDNA, Single stranded DNA; IMT, Intima-media thickness; SGK1, Serine/threonine protein kinase 1; Th, T helper; Treg, Regulatory T; IL, Interleukin; NK, Natural killer; SLAM-R, Revised Systemic Lupus Activity Measure.