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Potential antiviral mechanisms of lactoferrin (Lf): (i) direct binding of virus by Lf; (ii) Lf binding heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) on the host cell surface, reducing viral surfing and subsequent viral entry; and (iii) Lf inhibition of viral replication via induction of intracellular cell signals. ACE2, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2; IFN, interferon.
