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. 2020 Jul 29;13:376. doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-04236-6

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© The Author(s) 2020

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Schematic drawing of toxins and mode of action of some compounds produced by the bacteria Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus. Xenorhabdus can produce toxin complexes that induce immunosuppression in insects by inhibiting eicosanoid synthesis. The Xenorhabdus lipoprotein toxin produced by X. innexi has toxic properties against culicids. Photorhabdus also produces toxin complexes, which have activity directly in the intestinal epithelium of insects, leading to their destruction. Make caterpillars floppy causes apoptosis in hemocytes in the hemocoel. Photorhabdus virulence cassettes, encode genes that are toxic action against some species of lepidopterous. Insect-related protein is highly toxic and is similar to δ endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Photorhabdus can produce toxins that directly affect Phospholipase A₂, while Xenorhabdus produces toxins that inhibit phenoloxidase produced through prophenoloxidase, directly affecting the insect’s immune system. Abbreviations: Xr, Xenorhabdus; Tcs, toxin complexes; Xlt, Xenorhabdus lipoprotein toxin; Pr, Photorhabdus; Mcf, make caterpillars floppy; Pvc, Photorhabdus virulence cassettes; Pir, insect-related protein; PO, phenoloxidase; proPO, prophenoloxidase