Table 3.
Classification of naturally occurring osmolytes and examples of proteins that stabilized in the presence of osmolytes
| Classification | Chemical Name | Proteins | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Methylamines | Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) | α-Synuclein, Stem bromelain, Escherichia coli adenylate kinase, ATPase, Acetylcholinesterase, RNase T1, Lactate dehydrogenase, Protein L, Myoglobin | 35–38 |
| Betaine | Ribonuclease A, Lactate dehydrogenase, Bovine glutamate dehydrogenase, Fatty acid synthase, Phosphorylase b, Myoglobin, Trypsinogen, Lysozyme | 38–41 | |
| Choline | Trastuzumab | ||
| Polyols | Sucrose | Pea seedling copper amine oxidase, Trypsin, Yeast iso-1-ferricytochrome c, Protein L | 43–44 |
| Trehalose | Prion protein, Yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase, β-Lactoglobulin, ATPas, Yeast iso-1-ferricytochrome c, Mushroom tyrosinase | 45–47 | |
| Glycerol | Human cardiac titin, Yeast inorganic pyrophosphatase, Yeast hexokinase, Rabbit muscle creatine kinase, Insulin | 48–49 | |
| 2-O-α-Mannosyl glycerate (Firoin) | Lysozyme, Prion peptide, β-Amyloid peptide | 35, 40 | |
| 2-O-α-Manno-sylglyceramide (Firoin-A) | Lysozyme, Prion peptide | 35, 40 | |
| Mannitol | MAbs, Plasma proteins, Vaccine stabilizer, Factor VIII | 35, 50–52 | |
| Sorbitol | MAbs, Plasma proteins, Gonadotropin, Gamma-globulin | 53–54 | |
| myo-Inositol | Human thyrocytes | ||
| Diglycerol phosphate (DGP) | Alcohol dehydrogenase | ||
| Cyclic-2,3-diphosphoglycerate (cDPG) | |||
| L,L-Di-myo-1,1´(3,3´)-inositolphosphate (DIP) | |||
| Amino acids and derivatives | Proline | Ribonuclease A, Fatty acid synthase, Protein L, Phosphorylase b, Myoglobin, Creatine kinase | 35, 57–58 |
| Glycine | Ribonuclease A, Creatine kinase | 59–60 | |
| Ectoine | Trypsinogen, Lysozyme, Prion peptide, Interferon Alfa2b | 40, 59, 61–62 | |
| Hydroxyectoine | Trypsinogen, Lysozyme, Prion peptide, Interferon Alfa2b | 40, 59, 61–62 | |
| Taurine | Ribonuclease A, Lactate dehydrogenase, Bovine glutamate dehydrogenase, | 34, 62 | |
| Serine | |||
| Gamma-amino-n-butyric acid (GABA) | |||
| Alanine | |||
| Sarcosine | Ribonuclease A, Stem bromelain, Pea seedling copper amine oxidase, Barstar, α-Chymotrypsin, Ribonuclease A, anti-Interleukin-6 | 35, 64 | |
| Citrulline | Urokinase, Peroxidase, anti-Interleukin-6 | ||
| Poly-γ- glutamic acid (L-PGA) | |||
| Miscellaneous | Kahalalide F | ||
| Mycosporine | |||
| Melanine | |||
| Bacteriorubin | |||
| Pannarin | |||
| Scytonemin | |||
| Curacin A | |||
| Dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) |