Table 3.

Bioavailability of vitamins and minerals from vegetables and fruits in humans.

Nutrient	PRI/AI	Content (per 100 g)		Bioavailability (%)	Enhancing factors	Inhibiting factors
(Pro)-vitamin A	650 μg/d	Carrot Kale Mango Orange	694 μg 335 μg 26 μg 8 μg	0–36%	Lipid droplets Dietary fat	Entrapment in cell matrix/ structures Crystallization Dietary fiber
Folate	330 μg/d	Spinach Broccoli Orange Banana	130 μg 77 μg 33 μg 9 μg	60–98%	5-methyl tetrahydrofolate vitamer	Presence of polyglutamate chain
Vitamin C	95 mg/d	Kale Broccoli Orange Kiwi	100 mg 47 mg 51 mg 79 mg	80–90%	Vitamin E	Flavonoids
Vitamin K	70 μg/d	Kale Spinach Kiwi	623 μg 394 μg 11 μg	5%	Fermentation products	Entrapment in cell matrix/ structures
Potassium	3,500 mg/d	Spinach Kale Banana Kiwi	539 mg 400 mg 374 mg 312 mg	60–85%		Food matrix of unprocessed vegetables and fruits
Calcium	950 mg/d	Kale Spinach Kiwi Orange	180 mg 105 mg 30 mg 23 mg	20–40%		Phytate Oxalate
Magnesium	300 mg/d	Spinach Kale Banana Kiwi	55 mg 34 mg 28 mg 14 mg	25–35%	Proteins Medium chain triglycerides Indigestible carbohydrates	Phytate Oxalate Cellulose Lignin Pectin
Iron	11 mg/d	Spinach Kale Broccoli Kiwi	2 mg 1 mg 0.6 mg 0.5 mg	~12%	Vitamin C Lactic fermentation	Entrapment in cell matrix and structures Phytic acid

PRI, Population Reference Intake; AI, Adequate Intake for adult females. Source: EFSA: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf.