TABLE 1.
Training characteristics and identified back problems in athletes of individual sports.
| Authors | Sport and performance level | Subjects | Training | Back pain and/or injury | Diagnostics of back pain and/or injury | Main findings |
| Baranto et al., 2006 | – 20 Swedish elite divers (14 girls and 6 boys), still active in competition – 18 divers active in competitive diving at follow-up | Age at baseline: 16.4 ± 3.1 years Age at follow-up: 21.2 ± 3.0 years | Training days/week at follow-up: 4.0 ± 1.6 h Training hours/week at follow-up: 6.5 ± 2.9 h | Back pain was self-assessed. It was graded as moderate if it does not affect training and competition. If it affects training and competition it was graded as severe. 16 divers with previous or present back pain (first episode at age 15 ± 1.6 years) Causes of back pain: – Diving (8) – Trauma (2) – Do not know (4) – Not answered (2) Pain deteriorated with training (10) Pain improved with training (2) | – MRI examination – Neurological examination of lower extremities and the spine – Back pain questionnaire | – MRI abnormalities were observed in 3 divers at baseline – MRI abnormalities were observed in 4/7 divers trained more than 8 h/week (at follow-up) – MRI abnormalities were also found in 8/11 divers trained less than 8 h/week – High prevalence of back pain and MRI changes was observed; their causal relationship was confirmed – Young age was associated with high frequency of back pain – Growth spurt was associated with high risk of occurrence of degenerative changes of the thoracolumbar spine – Mild structural scoliosis in the thoracic spine in 1 diver – Tenderness in the thoracic in 8 divers – Tenderness in the lumbar spine in 5 divers – 5 divers presented MRI abnormalities and tenderness in the thoracolumbar spine – MRI abnormalities but no tenderness in 5 divers – 5 divers presented tenderness but no MRI abnormalities in the spine – MRI abnormalities or tenderness in 3 divers – Abnormalities in the thoracolumbar spine at baseline MRI examination in 12 out of 18 divers – Abnormalities in the thoracolumbar spine at follow-up MRI examination in 12 out of 17 divers – 20 new abnormalities in the spine were observed at follow-up |
| Jonasson et al., 2011 | – 75 Swedish top male athletes (17 divers, 17 weight-lifters, 11 wrestlers, 13 orienteers, and 17 ice-hockey players) – Control group consisted of 21 non-athletes | The median age of top athletes: 21.5 years The median age of non-athletes: 28 years The median age of divers: 17 years (youngest group) | The median training days/week for divers: 3.5 Training hours/week: 6.5 ± 2.9 h Mean training duration: 8.8 h/week Four divers trained 11 h/week Training intensity was not specified ins other group of athletes. | All athletes and controls with no knowledge of previous or present back symptoms | – Self-assessed pain-oriented questionnaire – The EuroQol questionnaire – The Oswestry Disability Questionnaire | – The frequency of cervical, thoracic and lumbar pain in the last week/last year was 35/55%, 22/33%, and 50/68%, respectively |
| Kaneoka et al., 2007 | – 56 Japanese elite swimmers (35 male and 21 female) – defined as a “high-load group” – 38 students (24 male and 14 female) defined as a “low-load group” or control group. | Age: 15–27 years | High load group Swimming duration: 9.3 years Swimming distance: 49,047 m/week Low load group Swimming duration: 5.4 years Swimming distance: 8440 m/week | – Low back pain in a high load group (yes/no): 43/13 – LBP in a low load group (yes/no): 33/5 – Severe LBP in a high load group (yes/no): 29/27 – Severe LBP in a low load group (yes/no): 14/24 | – Questionnaire – MRI examination | – Degenerated disks at various disk levels observed in 38 elite swimmers and 11 controls – The prevalence was significantly greater in elite swimmers – No association was observed between the low back pain, swimming strokes, and disk degeneration – L5-S1 intervertebral segment is the most affected by excessive competitive swimming activities |
| Schultz and Gordon, 2010 | – 66 recreational Australian cyclists aged 18 years and over (49 male and 17 female) – Divided into LBP group (n = 33) and NLBP group (n = 33) | LBP group Cycling experience: 6.0 ± 11.6 years Distance cycled: 250 ± 131.0 km/week Cycling frequency: 5.0 ± 1.4 days/week NLBP group Cycling experience: 3.0 ± 7.4 years Distance cycled: 150.0 ± 135 km/week Cycling frequency: 4.0 ± 1.8 days/week | 33 cyclists (23 males and 10 females) reported LBP during or after cycling within the last 6 months 27 cyclists (26 males and 7 females) reported no low back pain during or after cycling | – Survey by Wilber et al. (1995) | – LBP group cycled significantly more in a week than NLBP group – Training volume of 160 km/week or more was associated with 3.6 times higher incidence of LBP than in cyclists with training volume less than 160 km/week – Training volume less than 160 km/week reduced the risk of new occurrence of LBP in recreational cyclists | |
| Muyor et al., 2011 | – 60 Spanish elite male cyclists and 60 master cyclists | Elite Mean age: 22.95 ± 3.38 years Master Mean age: 34.27 ± 3.05 years | Elite Training days/week: 5.5 ± 1.46 Training hours/day: 3.23 ± 0.69 Master Training days/week: 3.23 ± 1.35 Training hours/day: 3.06 ± 1.28 | Without spinal pain in 3 months prior study enrollment | – Spinal Mouse | – Elite cyclists present thoracic hyperkyphotic postures in standing position; these changes in spinal curvatures may be a reason for the development of LBP |
| Ruckstuhl and Clénin, 2019 | – 111 Swiss elite cyclists (66 cyclists of endurance disciplines and 45 cyclists of technical disciplines) – Endurance athletes (road cycling, MTB or cyclo-cross): 39 males and 27 females – Technical discipline athletes (BMX, trial, downhill or 4×): 38 males and 7 females – All cyclists – a Swiss national team members | Age of endurance athletes: 19.5 ± 5.8 years Age of technical athletes: 19.6 ± 3.5years | Training hours/week: 11.5 ± 5 | – Core strength testing – Back pain questionnaire (modified Oswestry-Disability-Index) – Questionnaire on prior to training in general and core strength training – Sports medical examination – Evaluation of the sitting position on the bicycle | – Back pain in cyclists is frequent – In training – every 3rd suffers slight and every 10th rider moderate to heavy back pain – In competition – half of the cyclists are affected by back pain episodes (22.5% of them have moderate to heavy back pain) – 1/3 of elite cyclists have insufficient core strength – Core strength of the dorsal muscle chain is positively related to a lesser frequency of back pain – No significant association between back pain and core strength of the ventral and lateral chain – 21.6% cyclists are free of pain – 31.5% of cyclists suffer at least once a month of back pain – 37.9% of cyclists have back pain episodes 2–7 days/month – 9% of cyclists suffer from back pain more often – 6% of cyclists suffer from back pain nearly every day – 34.2% of cyclists suffer from slight back pain in training – 9.9% of cyclists suffer from moderate to very heavy back pain in training – 27.9% of cyclists suffer from slight back pain in competition – 22.5% of cyclists suffer from moderate to very heavy back pain in competition – 4.5% of athletes are moderately to heavily limited in daily life due to back pain – Endurance disciplines athletes suffer from back pain more than technical disciplines athletes | |
| Piotrowska et al., 2017 | – 167 amateur Polish male cyclists | Age: 31.0 ± 8.0 years Weight: 74.9 ± 9.5 kg Height: 1.8 ± 0.1 m | Training experience: 7.2 ± 6.7 years Training hours/week: 11.8 ± 6.9 | Spine pain – experienced by 70 cyclists Lumbar spine pain (33%) – one of the most common pains | – Questionnaire | – Spine pain in 41% of athletes (26% is related to the lumbar spine) – Number of hours devoted to training/week influence the case of spine pain |
| Murray et al., 2009 | – 64 English amateur golfers (43 men and 21 women) | LBP group Age: 56.4 ± 8.4 years Height: 179.1 ± 8.7 cm Weight: 85.2 ± 14.5 kg Male to female: 26:2 Control group Age: 54.3 ± 14.4 years Height: 176.8 ± 7.8 cm Weight: 78.2 ± 10.2 kg Male to female: 32:4 | LBP group Rounds/week: 2.0 ± 0.9 Years of play: 27.3 ± 11.3 Control group Rounds/week: 2.1 ± 1.1 Years of play: 22.9 ± 15.6 | Only golfers with LBP due to repeated injuries. LBP group (n = 28) – golfers with history of LBP within the last 12 months prior to the study enrollment (also currently suffering from LBP) Control group (n = 36) – golfers with no history of LBP | – Questionnaire including self-reported LBP in the past 12 months – Body chart | – The weak causal relationship between LBP and hip rotation |
| McHardy et al., 2007 | – 588 Australian amateur golfers (473 men and 115 women) | All Age: 59.1 ± 12.9 years Men Age: 58.7 ± 13.5 years Women Age: 60.8 ± 9.9 years | Men Years of play: 31.8 ± 15.3 Rounds/week: 1.7 ± 1.1 Women Years of play: 21.7 ± 14.6 Rounds/week: 1.8 ± 1.1 | – A prospective survey questionnaire | – The observed annual injury rate was 15.8 injuries/100 players (0.4–0.6 injuries/1000 h/person) – Men report higher rate of injuries/100 players than women – The lower back is the most frequently injured part (18.3%) as a result of the golf swing | |
| Saraceni et al., 2017 | – 16 recreational male golfers aged ≥ 18 years | Played or practiced golf for an average of ≥4 h/week over the past 2 years | LBP group Years of play: 19 ± 9 Weekly golfing time: 19 ± 16 h No pain group Years of play: 14 ± 6 Weekly golfing time: 23 ± 15 h | LBP group – LBP over 2 years preceding the data collection – 2 or more episodes of LBP – Aggravated by golf – Prevented golfers from playing in 24 months before data collection – Most recent episode occurred in 6 months prior to study | – Clinical examination – motion analysis | – Reduced lead hip internal rotation in the LBP group compared to no pain group during prone passive and standing clinical measures |
| Joeng et al., 2018 | – 363 Korean professional women golfers from Division I, Division II, and Division III | Division I (n = 119) Age: 23.5 ± 3.4 years Height: 166.1 ± 5.3 cm Weight: 60.8 ± 5.6 kg Division II (n = 121) Age: 22.4 ± 2.9 years Height: 165 ± 5.2 cm Weight: 59.7 ± 6.0 kg Division III (n = 123) Age: 21.0 ± 3.2 years Height: 165 ± 5.4 cm Weight: 58.7 ± 8.0 kg | Division I Golf career (years): 12.2 ± 2.6 Tournament games/year: 31 (20 last for 3 days and 11 for 4 days) Hours to complete each round/year: 520 Number of training hours/competition day: 6 Division II and III Golf career (years): 10 ± 2.8 and 7.7 ± 2.7, respectively Tournament games/year: 19 and 16 (2-day tournament games) Hours to complete each round/year: 190 and 160 Number of training hours/competition day: 7 and 7.5 | – YISSEM ISS survey | – A total of 510 injuries were recorded – 174 injuries occurred in Division I, 166 in Division II, and 170 in Division III – The most frequent mechanism for injury was the golf swing upon ball impact – The injury risk in female golfers was associated with number of competitions – Lumbar spine/lower back is one of the most common injured part | |
| Dennis et al., 2005 | – 44 Australian male fast bowlers compete at club and district levels | Age: 14.7 ± 1.4 years | Bowling days in total (44 bowlers): 1783 (696 match days and 1087 training days) Match/day: 1 Training days/week: 1.5 | 25% bowlers reported an overuse injury during the season | – Interview with physiotherapist – MRI examination | – An increased risk of injury was observed for those who bowled more than 2.5 days/week or for those with more than 50 deliveries per day – 25% bowlers reported an overuse injury, seven of them sustaining a back injury |
| Piazza et al., 2009 | – 60 former elite women gymnasts from Italian national team – International, national level and Olympic Games competitors | Age: 38 ± 7 years Weight: 54.5 ± 5 kg Height: 1.66 ± 0.44 m | Training intensity: 29.7 ± 11.4 h/week | 22 gymnasts with LBP Mean age of symptoms onset: 19 ± 8 years LBP during activity in 71.4% of gymnasts | – Interview – Self-administered questionnaire | – Occurrence of back pain during the sport activity was associated with an early onset of symptoms of LBP after the retire from competitions |
| Tertti et al., 1990 | – 35 competitive gymnasts (18 male and 17 female) – District level gymnast (n = 12) – National level gymnasts (n = 21) – International level gymnasts (n = 2) | Age: 12 ± 2.6 years Weight: 39 ± 9.6 kg Height: 150 ± 13 cm | – Practice time: 12 ± 5.5 h/week – Years of practice: 4.2 ± 2.5 | – Questionnaire – Clinical examination – MRI and radiographs | – 11 gymnasts suffer from episodes of LBP during exercises – 8 gymnasts have evidence of back trauma – 3 out of 35 gymnasts have MRI evidence of degenerated discs | |
| Goldstein et al., 1991 | – 33 top level female gymnasts (11 pre-elite, 14 elite, national, and 8 Olympic levels) regardless of back pain or injury – Control group: female swimmers | Top gymnasts Pre-elite gymnasts Mean age: 11.8 years Elite gymnasts Mean age: 16.6 years Older national/Olympic gymnasts Average age: 25.7 years Controls The AA and AAA swimmers Average age: 14.6 years Q and national ranked swimmers Average age: 18.6 years | Top gymnasts Pre-elite gymnasts Training h/week: 18.2 in their most current year Elite gymnasts Training h/week: 23.2 in their most current year Older/Olympic gymnasts Training h/week: 22.1 in their most current year Controls The AA and AAA swimmers Training h/week: 11.3 in their most current year Q and national ranked swimmers Training h/week: 16.4 in their most current year | No initial signs of LBP | – MRI examination | – 1 pre-elite, 6 elite and 5 Olympic level gymnasts have spine abnormalities – 15.8% of swimmers (control group) have spine abnormalities – Training volume per week and age are associated with MRI abnormalities – Top female gymnasts are more prone to spine injuries |
| Reis et al., 2015 | – 72 Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes (36 professional and 36 recreational level athletes) | Median age: 25.5 years | Median training experience: 8 years Training frequency: 2–7 times/week Median duration of each practice: 2 h/day | Athletes without history of LBP before training participation | – Questionnaire – Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale (QBPDS) | – Chronic LBP in 58 of jiu jitsu athletes (32 professional and 26 recreational) – High prevalence of LBP in jiu-jitsu athletes – Professional jiu-jitsu athletes are more prone to developing of chronic LBP |
| Almeida et al., 2012 | – 42 judo athletes (22 male and 20 female) | LBP group Age: 16.7 ± 2.9 years Weight: 60.1 ± 1.34 kg Height: 1.64 ± 0.1 m Control group Age: 16.3 ± 2 years Weight: 61.5 ± 9.9 kg Height: 1.65 ± 0.1 m | LBP group Training experience: 8.9 ± 2.9 years Weekly practice frequency: 5 ± 0.8 Hours of practice/day: 2.1 ± 0.4 Hours of practice/week: 10.1 ± 1.3 Control group Training experience: 8.4 ± 3.1 years Weekly practice frequency: 4.8 ± 0.7 Hours of practice/day: 2.1 ± 0.5 Hours of practice/week 10.5 ± 2.8 | Years with low back pain: 1.2 ± 0.5 Number of episodes in previous 12 months: 4.8 ± 8.3 Mean score on visual analog pain scale: 4.1 ± 2.6 | – Computed photogrammetry – Pain scale | – Deficits in hip rotation and greater asymmetry between limbs were observed in judo athletes with a history of LBP |
| Rostami et al., 2015 | – 14 professional off-road male cyclists – 24 controls – Cyclists competed at the national and international level during the past 12 months | Off-road cyclists Age: 27.2 ± 4.74 years Height: 172.7 ± 5.5 cm Weight: 71.5 ± 11.9 kg Controls Age: 27.8 ± 5.26 years Height: 179.7 ± 5.66 cm Weight: 80.2 ± 10.5 kg | Off-road cyclists Cycling distance/week: 236.1 ± 116.16 km Road cycling distance/week: 165.0 ± 88.82 km Off-road cycling distance/week: 71.1 ± 40.96 km Controls Cycling distance/week: 299.6 ± 169.13 km Road cycling distance/week: 240.4 ± 161.82 km Off-road cycling distance/week: 58.7 ± 20.50 km | Cyclists with bilateral non-specific LBP for more than 12 months LBP was defined as pain in the area between the 12th rib and the inferior gluteal fold responsible for a limitation in the performing of usual daily activities for more than 1 day during the past 4 weeks | – Ultrasonic measurements – Flexibility assessment – Dynamometry | – Lower thickness of transversus abdominis and cross sectional area of lumbar multifidus spinae in cyclists with LBP compared to controls |
| Trompeter et al., 2019 | – 156 German rowers (104 elite and 52 non-elite / 49 sculls, and 76 sweeps) – 90 males and 65 females – 166 physically active non-rowing controls | Rowers Age: 22.2 ± 5.1 years Height: 183.4 ± 8.3 cm Weight: 78.1 ± 11.5 kg Sex (m/f): 57.1/41.7% Controls Age: 21.2 ± 2.0 years Height: 180.0 ± 8.9 cm Weight: 74.0 ± 10.3 kg Sex (m/f): 74.7/24.1% | Rowers Training volume: 16.3 ± 8.2 h/week Years of rowing training: 9.5 ± 5.4 Controls Training volume: 10.8 ± 5.0 h/week | – Back pain questionnaire – Chronic Pain Grade (CPG) | – High back pain prevalence and severity were observed in rowers than controls, and among scull than sweep rowers – The lower back was the most frequent area for pain occurrence in rowers of all competition levels and also in controls – Age, sex, training volume, kinematics, strength, and ergometer training were associated with higher prevalence of back pain in rowers | |
| Alricsson et al., 2016 | – 51 elite Swedish cross-country skiers | Age: 16–19 years Sex (m/f): 30/21 | Training hours/week: Pre-season 11.3 ± 2.6 Season 9.0 ± 1.6 Number of competitions/season: 16.5 ± 5.9 Trained 13.8 ± 1.9 (7–16) years | LBP – defined according to European Guidelines (Airaksinen et al., 2006) as pain or discomfort somewhere between the 12th rib and the lower gluteal fold | – Questionnaire about training and competition status – Back pain questionnaire – DeBrunner’s kyphometer – Lumbar locked thoracic rotation test – Modified Thomas test – Prone active straight leg rising | – Participants with greater lordosis than kyphosis suffer from LBP more than those without kyphosis – Sagittal spinal alignment are related to LBP in elite cross-country skiers – The range of motion of the thoracic spine and hips do not affect the prevalence of LBP in elite cross-country skiers |
| Siewe et al., 2011 | – 245 German competitive and elite powerlifters (219 male and 26 female) – 225 powerlifters – winners with 154 medals on the national or international levels | All powerlifters Age: 37.8 ± 14.3 years Weight (off-season): 89.1 ± 18.4 kg Male Weight: 91.9 ± 17.1 kg Female Weight: 65.4 ± 10.2 kg | All powerlifters The maximum average loads lifted: squat 205.8 ± 69.12 kg, bench press 151.6 ± 52.4 kg, and deadlift 214.2 ± 54.8 kg Training experience: 13.6 ± 10.5 years During the competitive season, 88% of subjects worked 3–7 times/week The average workout time: 119.1 ± 39.7 min/day Male The maximum average loads lifted: squat 204.3 ± 69.7 kg, bench press 152.0 ± 52.9 kg and deadlift 213.4 ± 55.2 kg Female The maximum average loads lifted: squat 209.7 ± 64.7 kg, bench press 148.2 ± 48.3 kg, and deadlift 221.6 ± 52.6 kg | – Questionnaire | – Injuries of the lumbar spine in 108 powerlifters – The most frequent diagnoses are sciatica and myogelosis – Gender, exercise weight, workout duration, competition level, and routine endurance training have no impact on injury rates – Using of supporting devices was associated with more lumbar spine problems | |
| Junior et al., 2013 | – 191 recreational runners (141 males and 50 females) | All Age: 42.8 ± 10.5 years Height: 171.1 ± 9.4 cm Weight: 72.0 ± 14.0 kg Injured Age: 41.8 ± 10.2 years Height: 172.4 ± 8.8 cm Weight: 73.1 ± 11.8 kg Non-injured Age: 42.9 ± 10.5 years Height: 170.5 ± 9.7 cm Weight: 71.4 ± 14.9 kg | All Distance (km/week): 28.5 (15.0–41.0) Duration (min/session): 60 (50–80) Injured Distance (km/week): 15 (2.5–26.3) Duration (min/session): 50 (15–60) Non-injured Distance (km/week): 30 (18.0–42.5) Duration (min/session): 60 (50–90) | Running related injury was defined as any pain of musculoskeletal origin attributed to running and associated with absence at least one training unit (Bovens et al., 1989; Macera et al., 1989; van Middelkoop et al., 2007, 2008) | – 10-point pain numerical rating scale – Survey | – Running related injuries in lumbar spine in 12 (14%) runners, duration of LBP: 2.4 ± 0.8 weeks, pain intensity: 5.2 ± 2.5 |
| Villavicencio et al., 2006 | – 87 triathletes (31 male and 56 female) from Colorado – Elite level (6) – Intermediate level (65) – Beginners (16) | All Age: 36.1 years Women Age: 34.1 years Men Age: 39.8 years Triathletes with acute lumbar pain (n = 37) Mean age: 36.3 years Triathletes with subacute lumbar pain (n = 8) Mean age: 36.2 years Triathletes with chronic lumbar pain (n = 14) Mean age: 36.9 years | All triathletes Number of triathlons: 22.4 Combined training time: 12.5 h/week Swimming, biking, and running accounted for 22.47 and 31% of the training time, respectively Triathletes with acute lumbar pain Training volume (hours/week): 14.9 Number of running races and triathlons: 24.1 Triathletes with subacute lumbar pain Training volume (hours/week): 17.3 Number of running races and triathlons: 24.2 Triathletes with chronic lumbar pain Training volume (hours/week): 15.0 Number of running races and triathlons: 21.4 | The incidence of lumbar discogenic back pain was defined according to the duration of symptoms for the most recent pain episode The lifetime incidence of LBP: 67.8% (59 out of 87 triathletes) LBP related to sports injuries: in 48 (81.4%) out of 59 triathletes Triathletes with acute lumbar pain – LBP lasted fewer than 7 days – Triathletes with subacute lumbar pain – Most recent back pain episode lasted from 7 days to 3 months – In 14 out of 59 triathletes, the most recent LBP episode lasted more than 3 months – Number of sports-related injuries: 1.5 – Triathletes with chronic lumbar pain – The most recent LBP episode lasted more than 3 months – 9 triathletes noted sciatica symptoms | – On-line questionnaire | – No significant association between LBP and age, athletic status, or training duration – A strong tendency toward LBP in triathletes with years of experience – Strong association was observed between the number of injuries and the occurrence of LBP |
| Sekine et al., 2014 | – 68 Japanese collegiate rowers (43 men and 25 women) – International competition level (15) – National competition level (49) – Regional competition level (4) – Male rowers mainly participated in sweep oar rowing, while female rowers mainly participated in scull oar rowing | Men Age: 19.4 ± 1.1 years Height: 176.4 ± 5.9 cm Weight: 74.3 ± 8.1 kg Women Age: 19.7 ± 1.1 years Height: 164.2 ± 4.3 cm Weight: 60.0 ± 5.4 kg | Training volume: 11 sessions/week Training duration: 2 h Career duration: 4.8 ± 1.4 years (men) 5.1 ± 2.0 years (women) | – MRI examination – Injury surveillance | – 48.8% of male rowers and 40.0% of female rowers presented disc degeneration – Progression of disc degeneration after 2 years in 5 rowers – LBP during 2 years in 6 rowers; progression of disk degeneration in 4 of them – The prevalence of disc degeneration in lumbar spine among rowers was 45.6% | |
| Roussel et al., 2013 | – 40 Belgian pre-professional dancers (2 males, 38 females) | Age: 20.3 ± 2.4 years Height: 1.66.2 ± 0.06 m Weight: 56.43 ± 5.71 kg | Physical activity during classes: 21.5 ± 2.1 h/week Physical activity outside classes: 4.6 ± 1.3 h/week | 41% dancers with occurrence of LBP in the last year | – Questionnaires (SF-36, self-established medical) – The Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK) – The Visual Analogue Scale (pain severity) – Clinical test battery | – Dancers with a history of LBP presented poorer lumbo-pelvic motor control than those without history of LBP – Pre-professional dancers suffer from LBP frequently – LBP was associated with decreased motor control in dancers |
| Thoreson et al., 2017b | – 16 elite Swedish Mogul skiers (14 males and 2 females) – 28 age-matched non-athletes (control group) | Mogul skiers Age: 17.6 ± 1.02 years Height: 177.0 ± 6.9 cm Weight: 70.8 ± 10.62 kg Control group Age: 16.4 ± 0.57 years Height: 172 ± 8.56 cm Weight: 67 ± 17.91 kg | Mogul skiers 12 skiers exercised more than 11 h/week 2 skiers exercised 9–11 h/week 2 skiers exercised 6–8 h/week Control group All controls exercised less than 8 h/week 5 controls without exercise experience | Back pain was defined as any present or previous pain in the thoracolumbar back – It was self-assessed – It was graded moderate or severe depends on if daily living and physical activities were affected by pain or not | – MRI examination – Back pain questionnaires – Visual Analogue Scale (the location and type of pain) | – More MRI abnormalities in Mogul skiers compared to the controls (7.25 vs. 3.78) – No difference in LBP lifetime prevalence between skiers and controls – No association between disc degeneration and back pain – Increased risk of developing spinal abnormalities in elite Mogul skiers due to the different high loads than controls |
| Witwit et al., 2018 | – 75 Swedish elite skiers (59 alpine and 16 mogul skiers) – Elite level within the high school competitions – 27 non-athletic first-year high school students (control group) | Elite skiers Age: 18.2 ± 1.13 years Height: 174 ± 8.2 cm Weight: 70.9 ± 9.14 kg Control group Age: 16.4 ± 0.58 years Height: 172 ± 8.57 cm Weight: 67 ± 17.90 kg | Elite skiers 9–11 training hours/week (74%) Control group 2–5 training hours/week (78%) | – MRI examination – Back pain questionnaires | – Higher rate of radiological changes in skiers than controls (more degenerative disc changes in alpine skiers) – No significant difference in lifetime prevalence of back pain between athletes and non-athletes – The occurrence of MRI abnormalities in skiers is not associated with lifetime prevalence of back pain | |
| Angoules et al., 2018 | – 46 non-professional Greek classic female ballet dancers | Age: 28.8 ± 5.44 years | Training hours/week: 10.8 ± 6.68 Years of experience: 11.9 ± 4.20 | – A self-administered questionnaire | – 31 dancers experienced 3.26 ± 1.7 episodes of mechanical LBP in the previous 12 months and have to refrain from dancing activities (16.9 ± 16.22 days) – 21 dancers received some kind of conservative treatment | |
| Kraft et al., 2009 | – 58 elite horseback riders (18 men, 40 women) – Horseback riders competed at a national level, an international level, Olympic Games and/or the World Equestrian Games – Control group: 30 non-riding volunteers (17 men, 13 women) | Age of elite riders: 32.4 years Age of controls: 28.7 years | Training hours/week: 18.5 ± 8.2 Riding experience: 20.1 ± 9.1 years | – Questionnaire – Physical examination – MRI examination – Visual Analogue Scale | – 51 elite horseback riders have a history of LBP – The prevalence of LBP is not different among disciplines – The development of lumbar disk degeneration is not associated with LBP history, discipline, body mass index, and trunk/leg-length ratio – No conclusive MRI evidence to suggest that the cause of LBP in horseback riders lies in structural changes of the spine | |
| Adiele and Morgan, 2018 | – 45 competitive swimmers (22 boys and 23 girls) from Zimbabwe | Age: 16.43 ± 2.36 years Height: 168.3 ± 9.8 cm Weight: 55.01 ± 6.14 kg | Years of experience: 3.41 ± 1.52 Training duration: 3.08 ± 1.69 h | – Epidemiological survey | – Musculoskeletal problems and pain in 27 swimmers (16 male and 11 females) – LBP in 17.1% males and 26.2% females | |
| Koyama et al., 2013 | – 104 Japanese collegiate gymnasts (70 male and 34 female) – Pre-elite level gymnasts (17) – Elite level gymnasts (71) – National level gymnasts (16). – 2 gymnasts – winners of medals at Olympic and World Championships (4 gold medals) | Age: 19.7 ± 1.0 years | Training experience: 11.8 ± 3.6 years Approximately 4 h of gymnastics training for 6 days/week | – Questionnaire – MRI examination | – More than 1 MRI finding in 49 out of 104 gymnasts – High frequency of lumbar disc degeneration (LDDG) and limbus vertebra is in gymnasts with LBP compared to those without LBP – Only LDDG is a significant variable predictor associated with LBP | |