Table 1.
Summary of reviewed rtfMRI-nf studies relevant to addiction.
| Study | Target ROI(s)/Circuitry | Study Design | Participants | Control Condition/Group | Key Findings | Follow-Up |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nicotine | ||||||
| Canterberry et al. (2013) | ACC | Intermittent nf presented via veridical thermometer; 3 nf runs, decrease craving trials using cognitive strategies during smoking cues | N = 9 nicotine-dependent smokers, 18–60 years old, 11% female | Neutral cue condition | Decreased ACC activation and craving over 3 visits; less severe nicotine dependence associated with better neuromodulation | Yes, 3 visits |
| Hanlon et al. (2013) | Ventral ACC and dorsal medial PFC | Intermittent nf presented via 2 veridical thermometer, one linked to craving-related ROI activation and the other resistance to craving-related ROI activation; 3 nf runs, decrease craving and increase resist trials using cognitive strategies during smoking cues | N = 15 treatment-seeking nicotine-dependent smokers, 21–45 years old, sex not reported | Neutral cue condition | Better able to decrease craving-related activation; correlation between ventral ACC activation and self-reported craving across visits | Yes, 3 visits |
| Hartwell et al. (2016) | ACC and medial PFC | Intermittent nf presented via veridical thermometer; 3 nf runs, decrease craving trials using cognitive strategies during smoking cues | N = 44 non-treatment seeking nicotine-dependent smokers, 18–60 years old; nf group n = 21, M age = 34.1, 38% female, non-nf group n = 23, M age = 36.2, 35% female | No-nf control group; neutral cue condition | Nf group decreased craving-related ROI activation and physiological and subjective craving across visits | Yes, 3 visits |
| Kim et al. (2015) | ACC, PFC, functional connectivity to PCC and precuneus | Continuous nf via opacity of smoking image cues; 6 nf runs, decrease craving trials using cognitive strategies; pre- and post-nf runs, fc | N = 14 non-treatment seeking nicotine-dependent smokers, all male; nf group n = 7, M age = 26.0, fc-added neurofeedback group n = 7, M age = 26.0 | Nf control group | Fc-added nf group better able to increase brain activity and had greater connectivity across craving-related ROIs | Yes, 2 visits |
| Li et al. (2013) | ACC and medial PFC | Intermittent nf via veridical thermometer; 2 nf training runs, decrease craving trials and increase resistance to craving using cognitive strategies during smoking cues | N = 10 nicotine-dependent smokers, ages 21–60 years old, M age = 28.7, 67% female | Neutral cue condition | Better able to decrease craving-related ACC activation; unable to increase resistance-related medial PFC activation | None |
| Alcohol | ||||||
| Karch et al. (2015) | Anterior ACC, insula, dorsolateral PFC | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 4 nf training runs, decrease trials using cognitive strategies during alcohol cues; pre- and post-nf resting state scans, fc | N = 34, 18–60 years old; AUD patients group n = 13, healthy controls n = 14, AUD sham nf group n = 2, ages, 43 (male) and 54 (female), control sham nf group n = 5, 22–43 years old, 20% female | Healthy control nf group, AUD sham nf group, healthy control sham nf group; neutral image condition | AUD nf group decreased ROI brain activation across nf training and increased connectivity between frontal cortex and subcortical areas | None |
| Kirsch et al. (2016) | VS and PFC | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; monetary reward task as a functional localizer, 3 nf training runs, decrease trials using cognitive strategies and alcohol cues, post-nf transfer block | N = 38 heavy drinking college students; nf group n = 13, M age = 24.2, 38% female, yoke nf group n = 13, M age = 23.62, 15% female, no nf group n = 12, M age = 24.5 , 17% female | Yoke nf group; no-nf group | True nf group decreased VS activation; neurofeedback group had significant prefrontal activation with correlation to decreased VA activation | None |
| Cocaine | ||||||
| Kirschner et al. (2018) | VTA/SN | Continuous nf via veridical moving ball; 2 nf training runs, increase trials using cognitions/mental imagery; pre- and post- nf runs | N = 50, 18–52 years old; cocaine use disorder group n = 22, M age = 29.7, 36% female, healthy controls n = 28, M age = 28.2, 50% female | Matched healthy control group; rest condition | Both groups increased VTA/SN activation; obsessive–compulsive cocaine users had weaker ability to modulate VTA/SN | None |
| Reward responsivity | ||||||
| Greer et al. (2014) | NAcc | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 2 nf training runs, increase and decrease trials using cognitions/mental imagery; pre- and post-nf runs; fc | N = 25, 20–40 years old; 44% female | Non-nf run condition | Better able to increase NAcc activation; nf improved up- and down-regulation; fc between NAcc and mPFC during nf | None |
| MacInnes et al. (2016) | VTA | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 3 nf training runs, increase trials using cognitions/mental imagery; pre- and post-nf runs; fc | N = 73; VTA nf group n = 19, M age = 24, 47% female, non-nf group n = 20, M age = 23, 50% female, NAcc nf group n = 20, M age = 23, 70% female, false nf group, n = 14, M age = 21, 64% female | 3 control groups: non-nf, NAcc nf, false nf; backward counting condition | VTA nf group increased ROI activation; fc increased in mesolimbic network after VTA nf | None |
| Sulzer et al. (2013b) | VTA/SN | Continuous nf via veridical moving ball; 2 nf training runs, increase trials using cognitions/mental imagery; pre- and post-nf runs; fc | N = 32, 24–35 years old, all male; VTA/SN nf group n = 15, inverse nf group n = 17 | Inverse nf group | VTA/SN nf group increased ROI activation; fc increased in nigrostriatal pathway after VTA/SN nf | None |
| Emotion regulation | ||||||
| Caria et al. (2010) | Left anterior insula | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 4 nf runs, increase blocks using mental imagery, rated emotional valance and arousal from aversive images | N = 27, 23–40 years old (M age = 27.5), 56% female; nf group n = 9, 56% female, M age = 28, sham nf group n = 9, 56% female, M age = 27 mental imagery group n = 9, 56% female, M age = 26 | Sham nf group; mental imagery group; neutral images condition | Insula nf group increased ROI activation and rated aversive images more negatively | None |
| Cohen Kadosh et al. (2016) | Bilateral insula, amygdala, PFC | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 4 nf runs, increase and decrease trials using cognitions/mental imagery; effective connectivity (Granger causality) | N = 19, 7–16 years old (M age = 11.6), 42% female | Decrease condition | Better able to increase insula activation; correlations between the amygdala, PFC, and insula during up-regulation | None |
| Hamilton et al. (2011) | Subgenual ACC | Continuous nf via red line (ACC signal) and black line (whole brain minus ACC activity); 2 nf training runs, decrease blocks using positive mood strategies, pre- and post-nf runs; fc | N = 17, 18–50 years old, all female; nf group n = 8, yoked nf group n = 9 | Yoked nf group; baseline condition | ACC nf group decreased ROI activation and decreased correlation with PCC activation during nf training | None |
| Koush et al. (2017) | Amygdala, dorsomedial PFC | Intermittent nf via a red number for successful trials and blue for non-successful trials; 3 nf runs, increase connectivity using cognitions/mental imagery, pre- and post-nf funs; effective connectivity (DCM) | N = 15, M age = 26.2, 53% female; nf group = 9, M age = 26.4, 56% female, sham nf group n = 6, M age = 25.7, 50% female | Sham nf group; neutral images condition | Increased connectivity between medial PFC and amygdala, corresponding to increased valance ratings | Yes, 3 visits |
| Lawrence et al. (2014) | Right anterior insula | Continuous nf via veridical thermometer; 4 nf training runs, increase blocks using cognitions/mental imagery, rated emotional valance and arousal from aversive images; pre- and post-nf runs | N = 24, 22–32 years old; nf group n = 16, 50% female, sham nf group n = 8, 50% female | Sham nf group; baseline and neutral images conditions | Insula nf group increased ROI activation; no transfer effects in arousal and valence ratings; reward learning mediated by dorsal ACC | None |
| Zotev et al. (2011) | Left amygdala | Continuous nf via text and color icons; 3 nf training runs, increase blocks using positive memories, pre- and post-nf runs; fc | N = 28, M age = 28.0, all male; nf group n = 14, M age = 27.5, sham nf group n = 14, M age = 28.4 | Sham nf group; count condition | Amygdala nf group increased ROI activation, increased fc across training and transfer runs | None |
Note. AUD = alcohol use disorder; fc = functional connectivity; DCM = dynamic causal modeling; nf = neurofeedback; ROI = region of interest; ACC = anterior cingulate cortex; NAcc = nucleus accumbens; PFC = prefrontal cortex; PPC = posterior cingulate cortex; SN = substantia nigra; VS = ventral striatum, VTA = ventral tegmental area.