Table 3.
Neuropsychological tests in the groups during the intervention.
| Group | Baseline | 24 weeks | Change (Δ) | r | Δ adjusted | r | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attention | |||||||
| Selective | |||||||
| Stroop CW step 1 | no Ex + placebo | 52.9 ± 1.7 | 53.1 ± 1.9 | 0.2 ± 1.1 | – | 1.0 ± 1.5 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 51.3 ± 1.7 | 54.3 ± 1.7** | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 0.25 | 3.3 ± 1.5 | 0.24 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 45.8 ± 2.7 | 50.8 ± 2.7 | 5.0 ± 2.7 | 0.25 | 3.7 ± 1.7 | 0.13 | |
| Stroop CW step 3 | no Ex + placebo | 35.4 ± 1.2 | 36.0 ± 1.2 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | – | 1.1 ± 1.0 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 35.1 ± 1.4 | 35.7 ± 1.4 | 0.6 ± 0.7 | 0.01 | 0.9 ± 1.0 | 0.01 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 29.8 ± 1.7 | 33.2 ± 1.9 | 3.4 ± 2.1 | 0.21 | 2.3 ± 1.2 | 0.07 | |
| Selective/divided | |||||||
| TMT-A | no Ex + placebo | 32.3 ± 2.3 | 32.6 ± 2.1 | 0.2 ± 2.1 | – | − -1.0 ± 1.9 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 32.2 ± 1.6 | 29.9 ± 1.6 | − 2.4 ± 1.2 | 0.15 | − 3.7 ± 2.0 | 0.17 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 38.8 ± 4.6 | 32.2 ± 2.9 | − 6.6 ± 5.1 | 0.20 | − 3.2 ± 2.3 | 0.08 | |
| Divided | |||||||
| TMT-B | no Ex + placebo | 74.9 ± 4.7 | 75.1 ± 4.8 | 0.2 ± 4.4 | - | − 0.3 ± 4.1 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 74.3 ± 5.1 | 67.9 ± 3.6* | − 6.4 ± 2.6 | 0.17 | − 7.1 ± 4.2 | 0.21 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 80.5 ± 5.5 | 73.9 ± 8.2 | − 6.6 ± 6.9 | 0.13 | − 5.1 ± 4.8 | 0.10 | |
| Working memory | |||||||
| Digit span | no Ex + placebo | 12.7 ± 0.7 | 13.3 ± 0.8 | 0.6 ± 0.5 | - | 0.7 ± 0.5 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 11.1 ± 0.6 | 12.0 ± 0.7* | 0.9 ± 0.4 | 0.07 | 0.7 ± 0.5 | 0.05 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 11.9 ± 1.0 | 13.2 ± 1.0 | 1.3 ± 0.8 | 0.12 | 1.3 ± 0.6 | 0.10 | |
| Executive function | |||||||
| Inhibitory control | |||||||
| Stroop CW step 2 | no Ex + placebo | 43.6 ± 1.8 | 45.3 ± 1.9 | 1.7 ± 1.2 | – | 2.2 ± 1.5 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 44.0 ± 1.6 | 47.7 ± 1.7** | 3.6 ± 1.3 | 0.15 | 4.3 ± 1.5 | 0.17 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 38.4 ± 2.8 | 43.0 ± 2.4 | 4.6 ± 2.8 | 0.15 | 3.1 ± 1.7 | 0.04 | |
| Stroop CW step 4 | no Ex + placebo | 27.5 ± 2.1 | 29.5 ± 2.0 | 2.0 ± 1.4 | – | 2.1 ± 1.4 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 28.3 ± 2.2 | 30.4 ± 2.0 | 2.1 ± 1.4 | 0.01 | 2.4 ± 1.4 | 0.02 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 25.8 ± 2.4 | 28.7 ± 2.0 | 2.9 ± 2.2 | 0.05 | 2.4 ± 1.6 | 0.01 | |
| Cognitive flexibility | |||||||
| KWCST CA | no Ex + placebo | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.2 ± 0.4 | − 0.2 ± 0.3 | – | − 0.1 ± 0.3 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 3.0 ± 0.4 | 3.2 ± 0.4 | 0.3 ± 0.4 | 0.12 | 0.2 ± 0.3 | 0.09 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 3.3 ± 0.5 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 0.1 ± 0.4 | 0.10 | 0.2 ± 0.4 | 0.11 | |
| Language flexibility | |||||||
| Verbal fluency | no Ex + placebo | 70.6 ± 2.3 | 72.5 ± 2.7 | 1.9 ± 1.8 | – | 1.6 ± 2.0 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 70.9 ± 3.3 | 73.3 ± 3.2 | 2.4 ± 2.2 | 0.02 | 2.1 ± 2.0 | 0.03 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 76.0 ± 4.3 | 79.5 ± 4.4 | 3.6 ± 2.5 | 0.08 | 4.3 ± 2.3 | 0.12 | |
| Episodic memory | |||||||
| Verbal immediate | |||||||
| WMS-R LM I | no Ex + placebo | 19.1 ± 1.0 | 21.1 ± 1.1* | 2.0 ± 0.9 | – | 2.0 ± 1.0 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 19.0 ± 1.0 | 21.0 ± 0.8* | 2.1 ± 0.9 | 0.01 | 2.0 ± 1.1 | 0.00 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 19.0 ± 1.3 | 22.6 ± 2.0 | 3.6 ± 1.8 | 0.12 | 3.6 ± 1.2 | 0.13 | |
| Verbal delayed | |||||||
| WMS-R LM II | no Ex + placebo | 13.1 ± 0.8 | 17.3 ± 1.0** | 4.2 ± 0.8 | – | 4.1 ± 1.0 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 13.4 ± 1.1 | 16.3 ± 1.0** | 3.0 ± 0.9 | 0.14 | 3.0 ± 1.1 | 0.14 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 13.4 ± 1.1 | 18.0 ± 2.1* | 4.6 ± 1.7 | 0.03 | 4.6 ± 1.2 | 0.04 | |
| Visual delayed | |||||||
| ROCFT recall | no Ex + placebo | 14.8 ± 0.9 | 17.4 ± 1.1* | 2.6 ± 1.2 | – | 2.4 ± 1.0 | – |
| Ex + placebo | 14.0 ± 1.5 | 15.1 ± 1.2 | 1.2 ± 1.1 | 0.12 | 0.7 ± 1.0 | 0.18 | |
| Ex + LCPUFA | 17.6 ± 1.4 | 17.0 ± 1.5 | − 0.6 ± 1.0 | 0.28 | 0.3 ± 1.1 | 0.21 | |
Mean ± SE. no Ex + placebo (n = 28), Ex + placebo (n = 27) and Ex + LCPUFA (n = 21) groups.
There were significant differences in Stroop CW step 1 (p = 0.044) and step 3 (p = 0.014) at baseline among the groups. (one-way ANOVA). *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01 vs. baseline (paired t-test). There was no significant difference in change (Δ) and change adjusted by baseline (Δ adjusted) between the either Ex groups and the no Ex + placebo (Dunnett's). Ex, exercise; LCPUFA, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; Stroop CW, Stroop Colour-Word; TMT, Trail making test; KWCST CA, Wisconsin card sorting test of Keio version category achieved; WMS-R LM I/II, Wechsler memory scale revised logical memory I/II; ROCFT, Rey–Osterrieth complex figure test. Effect size is expressed as r.