TABLE 3.
Associations between anemia and an improved household water source in preschool children by survey, BRINDA project1
| Country (year) | n | Crude PR (95% CI) | n | Adjusted PR-1 (95% CI)2 | n | Adjusted PR-2 (95% CI)3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afghanistan (2013) | 804 | 1.42 (1.03, 1.94)* | 804 | 1.46 (1.09, 1.96)* | 600 | 1.34 (0.96, 1.87) |
| Azerbaijan (2013) | 1062 | 0.75 (0.57, 0.98)* | 1060 | 0.82 (0.64, 1.06) | 1023 | 0.83 (0.63, 1.10) |
| Bangladesh (2010) | 1481 | 1.02 (0.94, 1.11) | 1481 | 1.01 (0.93, 1.11) | 1475 | 1.01 (0.93, 1.10) |
| Bangladesh (2012) | 607 | 0.60 (0.24, 1.55) | 607 | 0.47 (0.17, 1.27) | 452 | 0.51 (0.16, 1.65) |
| Burkina Faso (2010) | 85 | 1.14 (0.93, 1.41) | 85 | 1.18 (0.92, 1.51) | 68 | 1.24 (0.95, 1.63) |
| Cambodia (2014) | 536 | 0.98 (0.82, 1.17) | 485 | 1.01 (0.85, 1.20) | 367 | 0.98 (0.79, 1.22) |
| Cameroon (2009) | 777 | 0.82 (0.70, 0.96)* | 770 | 0.95 (0.83, 1.10) | 722 | 1.01 (0.88, 1.17) |
| Colombia (2010) | 1607 | 0.97 (0.73, 1.31) | 1607 | 1.01 (0.78, 1.31) | 805 | 1.42 (0.67, 3.03) |
| Côte d'Ivoire (2007) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| Ecuador (2012) | 2018 | 0.92 (0.73, 1.16) | 1996 | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) | 1996 | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) |
| Kenya (2007) | 989 | 1.06 (0.96, 1.16) | 988 | 1.06 (0.96, 1.17) | 848 | 1.06 (0.96, 1.18) |
| Kenya (2010) | 832 | 0.95 (0.87, 1.04) | 824 | 0.97 (0.88, 1.06) | 814 | 1.03 (0.95, 1.12) |
| Laos (2006) | 493 | 0.72 (0.52, 0.999)* | 465 | 0.67 (0.49, 0.90)** | 450 | 0.67 (0.49, 0.92)* |
| Liberia (2011) | 1436 | 1.16 (0.96, 1.39) | 1436 | 1.20 (0.99, 1.45) | 1414 | 1.25 (1.04, 1.50)* |
| Malawi (2016) | 1168 | 0.94 (0.73, 1.20) | 1046 | 0.98 (0.73, 1.31) | 973 | 1.14 (0.82, 1.58) |
| Mexico (2006) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
| Nicaragua (2005) | 1406 | 0.74 (0.46, 1.21) | 1406 | 1.13 (0.70, 1.83) | 1406 | 1.14 (0.70, 1.86) |
| Pakistan (2011) | 10,261 | 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) | 10,167 | 0.96 (0.88, 1.05) | 7251 | 0.96 (0.87, 1.06) |
| Papua New Guinea (2005) | 842 | 0.82 (0.65, 1.05) | 839 | 0.85 (0.66, 1.09) | 807 | 0.86 (0.68, 1.10) |
| Philippines (2011) | 1776 | 1.40 (1.18, 1.66)** | 1724 | 1.32 (1.10, 1.58)** | 1707 | 1.30 (1.09, 1.55)** |
| Rwanda (2010) | 573 | 0.99 (0.74, 1.33) | 570 | 0.95 (0.71, 1.27) | 570 | 0.95 (0.72, 1.27) |
Values are prevalence ratios (PRs) (95% CIs). Unimproved household water source is the reference group. Anemia was defined as having an altitude-adjusted hemoglobin concentration <110 g/L, except for Bangladesh (2010 and 2012), Cambodia, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Philippines, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya (2007 and 2010), and Liberia, where altitude was not available. We used Poisson regressions with log link function and robust variance estimation to calculate associations (PR; 95% CI) between anemia and household water source or sanitation; *,**significant association: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01. AGP, α-1-acid glycoprotein; BRINDA, Biomarkers Reflecting Inflammation and Nutritional Determinants of Anemia; CRP, C-reactive protein; N/A, not available; SES, socioeconomic status.
Adjusted for child sex, child age in months (continuous), household SES, maternal education (no education, primary education, secondary education, or university), and/or type of residence (rural/urban), when available. SES was a 3-level ordinal variable created from asset quintiles or country income variables. Specifically, the first and second quintiles/categories were collapsed as “low SES,” the third and fourth quintiles/categories were collapsed as “medium SES,” and the fifth quintile/category was converted as “high SES.”
Adjusted for child sex, child age in months (continuous), household SES, maternal education (no education, primary education, secondary education, or university), and/or type of residence (rural/urban), when available. Further adjusted for inflammation (yes/no). Inflammation was defined as having a CRP concentration >5 mg/L or an AGP concentration >1 g/L.