Figure 1.

(A) Experimental paradigm used in this study. Participants were required to withhold their planned response and wait for any possible upcoming cue to avoid an incorrect response when the initial character (“X” or “O”) appeared. Participants had to entirely abort the responses that were already in progress if the background changed to red or switch their response to press “3” if the background changed to blue. (B) The stop-signal task consists of go, stop, and switch trials, which involve several cognitive components, i.e., proactive inhibition, reactive inhibition, or action. Based on this task design, reactive inhibition was analyzed by comparing the successful “switch” trials with successful “go” trials, while proactive inhibition was analyzed by the conjunction of all successful “go,” “stop,”’ and “switch” trials (Zhang and Iwaki, 2019).