TABLE 3.

The configuration of structural patterns for each AE, typically used to express five basic emotions.

Acoustic domains	Aspects of expression in music	Range of the expression of an aspect	Happiness’ acoustic markers	Sadness’ acoustic markers	Anger’s (aggression) acoustic markers	Fear’s (anxiety) acoustic markers	Tenderness’ (love) acoustic markers
1. Frequency	1. Melodic pitch (consecutive “linear”)	High/low relation of tones	Prevalence of ascending contour within a diverse set of contours, wide ambitus, leaps, sharp zigzags, and sharpened intonation	Prevalence of descending and wave-like contours, narrow ambitus, mainly stepwise motion, flat and sliding down intonation	Prevalence of ascending contour, with little diversity of other contours, frequent leaps with sharpened melodic contours and tendency to short motifs	Prevalence of ascending contour, of little variation, wide ambitus, many interruptions, frequent leaps, including extreme, use of angular and wave-like intonations	Fairly narrow ambitus, prevalent steps with occasional leaps, rising intonation, wave-like shapes
	2. Harmonic pitch (concurrent “vertical”)	Concordant/discordant combination of tones	Major, diatonic, prevalence of medium size perfect intervals of fourth and fifth	Minor, chromatic, dissonance, prevalence of small intervals	Minor, chromatic, strong dissonance (up to atonal), large intervals, esp. major seventh, augmented fourth	Minor, strong dissonance, diverse intervals	Major, diatonic, general consonance
	3. Form (thematicism)	Sameness/diversity	Relative simplicity	High complexity	High complexity	Relative complexity	Quite low complexity
2. Time	4. Tempo	Fast/slow metric pulse	Mostly fast, with very restricted use of rubato	Slow, with strong rubato and prevalence of ritenuto	Fast, with minimal rubato and general tendency to use accelerando	Fast, with strong rubato and many abrupt changes	Slow and moderate, strong rubato but no abrupt changes
	5. Rhythm	Short/long relation of tones	Sharp contrasts of tones, yet smooth succession of groups of tones	Smoothened contrasts of tones, yet firm patterns, many long tones	Very sharp contrasts of tones, complex patterns with sudden changes, many short tones	Abrupt changes of tones and rhythmic groups, with overall diversity in rhythm, many short tones	Smoothened contrasts of tones, yet with rhythmic diversity, many long tones
	6. Meter	Short/long periodicity of stressed beats	Strong regularity with minimal deviations	Tendency to irregularity	Tendency to syncopation and irregularity	Pronounced irregularity and variability	Strong regularity with moderate variability
	7. Articulation	Styles of attaching/detaching of successive tones	Prevalence of staccato, with overall great diversity of styles	Prevalence of legato, with little diversity of styles, many pauses	Prevalence of staccato, with moderate diversity of styles, occasional legato	Prevalence of staccato (stressed), with great diversity of styles, many pauses	Prevalence of legato, with little diversity of styles, many pauses
3. Amplitude	8. Dynamics	Loud/soft relation of tones	Prevalence of loud and medium loud, with limited crescendo and diminuendo	Prevalence of soft and medium soft, with medium crescendo and diminuendo	Prevalence of very loud, with very little dynamic change, accents tend to fall on unstable tones	Prevalence of soft and medium soft, yet with diverse dynamic changes, mostly abrupt	Prevalence of medium soft, few dynamic changes, accents tend to fall on stable tones
4. Timbre	9. Register	Relation of homogenous groups of tones in their tonal quality	Prevalence of bright register, raised singing formant, brightness	Prevalence of bright register, low singing formant, dullness	Bright register with little changes, raised singing formant, harshness	Prevalence of bright register with abrupt registral changes, general mellowness	Prevalence of dark register, lowered singing formant, general mellowness
	10. Harmonicity, attack and vibrato	Periodic/non-periodic spectral content	Harmonic richness, fast attack, medium vibrato with mid-fast rate	Harmonic scarcity, slow attack, small vibrato range with slow rate	Harmonic richness, much spectral noise, fast attack and decay, large vibrato range, mid-fast rate	Contrasts of harmonic richness and scarcity; gentle attacks; small irregular vibrato with fast rate	Harmonically moderate, slow attacks, small vibrato range with mid-fast rate

This table is compiled based on a number of meta-reviews of experimental research on emotional responses to listening to music (Gabrielsson and Lindström, 2001; Gabrielsson and Juslin, 2003; Juslin and Laukka, 2003; Juslin, 2005). The data is categorized according to the musicological nomenclature: all acoustic attributes are broken into 10 AEs across 4 acoustic domains. The aspect of texture is missing, because it was not controlled for in the experimental studies of the acoustic structural patterns that characterize “musical emotions”. The aspect of harmonicity constitutes an organic part of the aspect of instrumentation, listed in the beginning of this paper. This potentially confusing mismatch occurs as a result of the discrepancy in musicological and psychoacoustic scholarships: as a rule, musicians are ignorant of harmonicity, while psychoacousticians are ignorant of instrumentation. Harmonicity can be defined as the extent to which the spectrum of a complex tone is made of its component frequencies that are integer multiples of its fundamental frequency (FF). This is usually measured as the ratio of harmonics to noise. Slow attack and great vibrato generally tend to reduce harmonicity in a monophonic tone.