TABLE 5.

The acoustic attributes of typical expression of 5 basic emotions in human music that find no correspondences in animal communication (based on Tables 3, 4).

Acoustic domains	AEs of music	Range of an aspect	Happiness features	Sadness features	Anger (aggression) features	Fear (anxiety) features	Tenderness (love) features
1. Frequency	1. Melodic pitch (consecutive “linear”)	high/low relation of tones	prevalence of ascension in the overall diverse contours, leaps, zigzags, sharpened intonation, wide ambitus	smooth contours, mainly steps, wave-like shapes, flat and falling intonation, narrow ambitus	prevalence of ascending contour, with sharpened shape of melodic contours	little variation in contours, interruptions, use of angular shapes, wide ambitus	prevalence of descending contour, mostly steps with occasional leaps, rising intonation, wave-like shapes
	2. Harmonic pitch (concurrent “vertical”)	concordant/discordant combination of tones	major, diatonic, prevalence of perfect 4th and 5th	minor, chromatic, dissonance, mostly small intervals	minor, chromatic, strong dissonance, wider intervals (major 7th, aug. 4th)	minor, strong dissonance	major, diatonic, general consonance
	3. Form (complexity)	sameness (simplicity)/diversity (complexity)	relative simplicity	high complexity	n/a	n/a	low complexity
2. Time	4. Tempo	fast/slow metric pulse	fast, with very restricted rubato	strong rubato and prevalence of ritenuto	minimal use of rubato	strong rubato and many tempo changes	slow and moderate, with moderate rubato
	5. Rhythm	short/long relation of tones	sharp contrasts of tones, yet smooth succession of groups	smoothened contrasts of tones due to frequent use of rubato	very sharp contrasts of tones, complex patterns with sudden changes	abrupt changes of tones and groups, general prevalence of diversity	smoothened contrasts of tones due to rubato use
	6. Meter	periodicity of beat grouping	minimal deviations	n/a	tendency to syncopation	pronounced variability	moderate variability
	7. Articulation	styles of attaching/detaching of successive tones	prevalence of staccato, great diversity of styles	prevalence of legato, with little diversity of styles	moderate diversity of articulation, occasional legato	stressed staccato (marcato), great stylistic diversity, many pauses	little diversity of styles
3. Amplitude	8. Dynamics	loud/soft relation of tones	prevalence of loud and medium loud, with limited crescendo and diminuendo	prevalence of soft, with medium crescendo and diminuendo	mostly loud, with very little dynamic changes, accents tend to fall on unstable tones	prevalence of soft and medium soft, yet with diverse dynamic changes, mostly abrupt	few dynamic changes, accents tend to fall on stable tones
4. Timbre	9. Register	bright/dark relation of homogenous groups of tones	prevalence of bright register, raised singing formant, brightness	prevalence of bright register, lowered singing formant, dullness	prevalence of bright register, with little change, raised singing formant, harshness	prevalence of bright register with abrupt registral changes, mellowness	prevalence of dark register, lowered singing formant, mellowness
	10. Harmonicity, attack and vibrato	periodic/non-periodic spectral content of tones	harmonic richness, fast attack, medium vibrato with mid-fast rate	slow attack, little vibrato with a slow rate	harmonic richness, fast attack and decay, large vibrato with a mid-fast rate	gentle attacks; little and irregular vibrato with a fast rate	slow attacks, little vibrato with a mid-fast rate

These attributes constitute a stock of TO features developed in the process of evolution of human music from hominin musilanguage. This includes changes in vertical harmony, in metric pulse, and in complexity of musical form; contrasts in melodic contour, in directionality of melodic intervals (sharpening for ascending, flattening for descending dyads), and in thematic material; diversity of rhythm, articulation and tempo; and ambitus size. Animal vocalizations do not seem to engage these categories in meaningful differentiation of calls.