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. 2020 Jul 24;12:226. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00226

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Copyright © 2020 Lin, Wei, Chen, Huang, Lin, Lo, Lin, Lin, Wu, Chang and Lee-Chen.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Trehalose and both analogs enhanced autophagy and decreased oxidative stress on dopaminergic neurons. (A) Western blotting to examine the altered protein levels of NRF2, NQO1 and LC3-II/I in ventral midbrain (n = 8, divided into four batches). (B) Immunohistochemistry of TH (red) and NRF2 (green) positive neurons in ventral midbrain with MPTP/trehalose/lactulose/melibiose treatment. Nuclei were counter stained with DAPI (blue). Percentages of dopaminergic neurons with anti-oxidative damage, identified by TH and NRF2 co-localization, were shown below (n = 8). P-values, ANOVA with LSD post hoc test, MPTP vs. control (^#P < 0.05) and disaccharide-treated vs. untreated (*P < 0.05 and **P < 0.01).