TABLE 3.
Associations between regular coffee consumption and cognitive function tests in the UK Biobank
| Cups/day | N | Score6 | Model 11 | Model 22 | Model 33 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β (95% CI) | P | β (95% CI) | P | β (95% CI) | P | |||
| Fluid Intelligence4 | ||||||||
| 0 | 50,782 | 5.98 ± 2.11 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 8455 | 6.33 ± 2.09 | 0.32 (0.28, 0.37) | <0.0001 | 0.14 (0.09, 0.18) | <0.0001 | 0.15 (0.11, 0.20) | <0.0001 |
| 1 | 24,440 | 6.12 ± 2.09 | 0.14 (0.11, 0.17) | <0.0001 | −0.03 (−0.06, −0.002) | 0.04 | −0.03 (−0.06, 0.002) | 0.06 |
| 2–3 | 38,486 | 6.29 ± 2.11 | 0.29 (0.26, 0.32) | <0.0001 | 0.03 (0.01, 0.06) | 0.007 | 0.01 (−0.02, 0.03) | 0.60 |
| 4–5 | 16,265 | 6.28 ± 2.14 | 0.25 (0.22, 0.29) | <0.0001 | 0.10 (0.07, 0.13) | <0.0001 | 0.03 (−0.0006, 0.07) | 0.05 |
| 6–7 | 4823 | 6.08 ± 2.10 | 0.05 (−0.01, 0.12) | 0.09 | 0.03 (−0.02, 0.09) | 0.23 | −0.06 (−0.11, −0.0009) | 0.05 |
| ≥8 | 2373 | 5.96 ± 2.17 | −0.12 (−0.21, −0.04) | 0.005 | 0.04 (−0.03, 0.12) | 0.27 | −0.04 (−0.12, 0.03) | 0.27 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | 0.02 (0.02, 0.03) | <0.0001 | 0.011 (0.006, 0.02) | <0.0001 | −0.003 (−0.008, 0.002) | 0.28 | ||
| Reaction Time5 | ||||||||
| 0 | 159,924 | 554 ± 108 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 24,915 | 550 ± 106 | −2.53 (−3.89, −1.18) | 0.0003 | −0.25 (−1.60, 1.09) | 0.71 | −0.89 (−2.24, 0.45) | 0.19 |
| 1 | 70,974 | 557 ± 108 | 0.90 (0.01, 1.80) | 0.05 | 3.25 (2.35, 4.15) | <0.0001 | 3.05 (2.15, 3.95) | <0.0001 |
| 2–3 | 113,869 | 554 ± 107 | −0.97 (−1.74, −0.20) | 0.01 | 2.60 (1.82, 3.38) | <0.0001 | 3.26 (2.47, 4.05) | <0.0001 |
| 4–5 | 48,930 | 549 ± 105 | −1.66 (−2.70, −0.63) | 0.002 | 0.87 (−0.16, 1.90) | 0.10 | 2.64 (1.58, 3.71) | <0.0001 |
| 6–7 | 14,885 | 551 ± 106 | 1.45 (−0.26, 3.16) | 0.10 | 1.24 (−0.46, 2.94) | 0.15 | 3.67 (1.94, 5.41) | <0.0001 |
| ≥8 | 7298 | 547 ± 106 | 4.96 (2.57,7.34) | <0.0001 | 0.41 (−1.98, 2.80) | 0.74 | 3.06 (0.64, 5.49) | 0.01 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | 0.09 (−0.06, 0.24) | 0.27 | 0.17 (0.02, 0.32) | 0.03 | 0.56 (0.40, 0.72) | <0.0001 | ||
| 5Pairs Matching | ||||||||
| 0 | 157,997 | 1.46 ± 0.62 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 24,648 | 1.46 ± 0.63 | −0.001 (−0.009, 0.007) | 0.83 | 0.012 (0.004, 0.020) | 0.004 | 0.007 (−0.001, 0.016) | 0.08 |
| 1 | 70,070 | 1.48 ± 0.63 | 0.012 (0.007, 0.018) | <0.0001 | 0.022 (0.016, 0.027) | <0.0001 | 0.019 (0.014, 0.025) | <0.0001 |
| 2–3 | 112,541 | 1.46 ± 0.63 | 0.001 (−0.003, 0.006) | 0.57 | 0.017 (0.012, 0.022) | <0.0001 | 0.020 (0.016, 0.025) | <0.0001 |
| 4–5 | 48,415 | 1.44 ± 0.62 | −0.015 (−0.021, −0.009) | <0.0001 | 0.0003 (−0.006, 0.007) | 0.93 | 0.013 (0.006, 0.019) | 0.0001 |
| 6–7 | 14,745 | 1.43 ± 0.62 | −0.024 (−0.034, −0.013) | <0.0001 | −0.013 (−0.024, −0.003) | 0.01 | 0.005 (−0.005, 0.016) | 0.32 |
| ≥8 | 7223 | 1.42 ± 0.63 | −0.011 (−0.026,0.003) | 0.13 | −0.011 (−0.026, 0.004) | 0.14 | 0.010 (−0.005, 0.024) | 0.20 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | −0.003 (−0.004, −0.002) | <0.0001 | −0.001 (−0.002, 0.0001) | 0.10 | 0.002 (0.001, 0.003) | <0.0001 | ||
| Symbol Digit Substitution4 | ||||||||
| 0 | 37,537 | 19.9 ± 5.3 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 6805 | 19.7 ± 5.2 | −0.14 (−0.26, −0.02) | 0.02 | −0.25 (−0.37, −0.14) | <0.0001 | −0.19 (−0.31, −0.07) | 0.002 |
| 1 | 18,392 | 19.5 ± 5.1 | −0.09 (−0.17, −0.01) | 0.03 | −0.22 (−0.30, −0.14) | <0.0001 | −0.21 (−0.29, −0.13) | <0.0001 |
| 2–3 | 30,420 | 19.7 ± 5.1 | 0.07 (−0.003, 0.14) | 0.06 | −0.15 (−0.22, −0.08) | <0.0001 | −0.22 (−0.29, −0.15) | <0.0001 |
| 4–5 | 12,139 | 20.0 ± 5.1 | 0.16 (0.06, 0.26) | 0.001 | −0.01 (−0.11, 0.08) | 0.79 | −0.18 (−0.27, −0.08) | 0.0004 |
| 6–7 | 3305 | 19.8 ± 5.2 | −0.10 (−0.26, 0.07) | 0.24 | −0.08 (−0.24, 0.08) | 0.35 | −0.29 (−0.46, −0.13) | 0.001 |
| ≥8 | 1397 | 19.9 ± 5.2 | −0.39 (−0.64, −0.14) | 0.002 | −0.20 (−0.45, 0.04) | 0.10 | −0.43 (−0.68, −0.19) | 0.001 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | 0.01 (−0.005, 0.02) | 0.20 | −0.005 (−0.02, 0.009) | 0.48 | −0.04 (−0.06, −0.03) | <0.0001 | ||
| Trail A5 | ||||||||
| 0 | 32,948 | 3.61 ± 0.33 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 6019 | 3.61 ± 0.33 | 0.002 (−0.006, 0.011) | 0.62 | 0.007 (−0.001, 0.015) | 0.11 | 0.003 (−0.005, 0.012) | 0.44 |
| 1 | 16,183 | 3.62 ± 0.32 | 0.001 (−0.005, 0.006) | 0.81 | 0.006 (0.0003, 0.012) | 0.04 | 0.005 (−0.001, 0.010) | 0.11 |
| 2–3 | 26,721 | 3.60 ± 0.32 | −0.011 (−0.016, −0.006) | <0.0001 | −0.001 (−0.006, 0.004) | 0.77 | 0.002 (−0.003, 0.008) | 0.35 |
| 4–5 | 10,761 | 3.59 ± 0.33 | −0.013 (−0.020, −0.007) | 0.0001 | −0.005 (−0.011, 0.002) | 0.19 | 0.004 (−0.003, 0.011) | 0.23 |
| 6–7 | 2907 | 3.60 ± 0.33 | −0.001 (−0.013, 0.011) | 0.88 | −0.001 (−0.012, 0.011) | 0.90 | 0.012 (0.00009, 0.024) | 0.05 |
| ≥8 | 1252 | 3.59 ± 0.33 | 0.013 (−0.005, 0.030) | 0.15 | 0.006 (−0.011, 0.024) | 0.47 | 0.020 (0.003, 0.038) | 0.02 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | −0.002 (−0.003, −0.001) | 0.002 | −0.001 (−0.002, 0.0003) | 0.16 | 0.001 (0.0002, 0.002) | 0.02 | ||
| Trail B5 | ||||||||
| 0 | 32,948 | 4.13 ± 0.34 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 6018 | 4.13 ± 0.33 | −0.002 (−0.011, 0.006) | 0.57 | 0.006 (−0.002, 0.015) | 0.13 | 0.002 (−0.006, 0.011) | 0.58 |
| 1 | 16,183 | 4.15 ± 0.34 | 0.007 (0.001, 0.013) | 0.02 | 0.016 (0.011, 0.022) | <0.0001 | 0.015 (0.009, 0.020) | <0.0001 |
| 2–3 | 26,720 | 4.14 ± 0.33 | −0.009 (−0.014, −0.004) | 0.001 | 0.007 (0.002, 0.012) | 0.004 | 0.011 (0.006, 0.016) | <0.0001 |
| 4–5 | 10,761 | 4.12 ± 0.34 | −0.014 (−0.021, −0.008) | <0.0001 | −0.003 (−0.010, 0.004) | 0.38 | 0.008 (0.001, 0.014) | 0.03 |
| 6–7 | 2907 | 4.13 ± 0.34 | −0.00002 (−0.012, 0.012) | 0.99 | −0.005 (−0.016, 0.007) | 0.40 | 0.010 (−0.001, 0.022) | 0.08 |
| ≥8 | 1252 | 4.14 ± 0.35 | 0.038 (0.020, 0.055) | <0.0001 | 0.019 (0.002, 0.036) | 0.03 | 0.035 (0.018, 0.053) | <0.0001 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | −0.001 (−0.002, 0.00003) | 0.06 | −0.0003 (−0.001, 0.001) | 0.53 | 0.002 (0.001, 0.003) | <0.0001 | ||
| Prospective Memory Test4 | ||||||||
| N | % correct | OR (95% CI) | P | OR (95% CI) | P | OR (95% CI) | P | |
| 0 | 51,947 | 78.3 | Reference | Reference | Reference | |||
| <1 | 8590 | 82.8 | 1.33 (1.25, 1.41) | <0.0001 | 1.20 (1.12, 1.27) | <0.0001 | 1.21 (1.14, 1.29) | <0.0001 |
| 1 | 24,963 | 78.9 | 1.07 (1.03, 1.11) | 0.001 | 0.98 (0.94, 1.02) | 0.25 | 0.99 (0.95, 1.02) | 0.45 |
| 2–3 | 39,203 | 79.9 | 1.12 (1.08, 1.16) | <0.0001 | 0.97 (0.94, 1.01) | 0.110 | 0.96 (0.92, 0.99) | 0.01 |
| 4–5 | 16,545 | 81.2 | 1.18 (1.12, 1.23) | <0.0001 | 1.07 (1.02, 1.12) | 0.007 | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) | 0.69 |
| 6–7 | 4917 | 80.1 | 1.09 (1.01, 1.17) | 0.02 | 1.06 (0.98, 1.15) | 0.13 | 0.98 (0.91, 1.06) | 0.62 |
| ≥8 | 2456 | 78.8 | 0.92 (0.84, 1.02) | 0.12 | 1.02 (0.92, 1.13) | 0.70 | 0.94 (0.85, 1.05) | 0.26 |
| Cups/day, linear trend | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02) | 0.001 | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) | 0.30 | 0.99 (0.99, 1.00) | 0.03 | ||
1Model 1: adjusted for age and sex.
2Model 2: adjusted for age, sex, smoking, Townsend deprivation index, education, income, employment status, homeownership, self-reported health, waist-to-hip ratio, physical activity, fasting time and intakes of alcohol, water, fish, red meat, fruit, and vegetables.
3Model 3: model 2 adjusted for tea consumption.
4Positive β-coefficients for FI (difference in 13-point score) and SDS (difference in number of correct substitutions) and OR >1 for PM (correct on first attempt) correspond to higher performance compared with nondrinkers (0 cups/day).
5Negative β-coefficients for Pairs [difference in (log-transformed) number of errors], RT (difference in time, seconds, to respond), Trails A and Trails B [difference in (log transformed) time to complete] correspond to higher performance compared with nondrinkers (0 cups/d).
6Data are raw mean ± SD scores of each cognitive function test stratified by regular coffee consumption.
FI, fluid intelligence; Pairs, Pairs Matching; PM, prospective memory; RT, reaction time; SDS, symbol digit substitution.