Table 1.
Vitamin C status and prevalence of deficiency and hypovitaminosis C in adults from high-income countries.
| Country (Region) Sampling Dates | Population (Age Range) | Vitamin C Status (µmol/L) a | Deficiency (% <11 µmol/L) | Hypovitaminosis C (% <23 or 28 µmol/L) | Dietary Intake (mg/day) a | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Europe | ||||||
| England (Norfolk) 1993–1997 | 22,474 total (40–79 years) | 54 b | 1.4 | 12 | 85 b | [16,17] |
| 10,267 males | 48 b | 2.2 | 17 | 83 b | ||
| 12,207 females | 59 b | 0.8 | 8 | 87 b | ||
| UK (England and Scotland) 1994–1995 | 1310 elderly (≥65 years) | 44 (25) | 14 | – | – | [18] |
| Scotland (Glasgow) 1992 | 1267 total (25–74 years) | – | 20 | 44 | – | [19] |
| 632 males | – | 26 | 52 | – | ||
| 635 females | – | 14 | 36 | – | ||
| France (all regions) 1994–1995 | 12,741 total (35–60 years) | 56 b | 1.0 | – | 100 b | [20,21] |
| 5028 males | 50 (23) | 1.8 | – | 103 (48) | ||
| 7713 females | 60 (31) | 0.4 | – | 98 (44) | ||
| France (South; Sète) 1995–1997 | 1987 total (>60 years) | 36 b | 9 b | – | – | [22] |
| 874 elderly males | 32 | 13 b | – | – | ||
| 1113 elderly females | 40 | 6 b | – | – | ||
| France (Paris) <1991 | 837 total (≥18 years) | 48 b | – | – | – | [23] |
| 361 males | 41 | – | – | – | ||
| 476 females | 53 | – | – | – | ||
| France (Nancy) | 459 males (20–60 years) | 39 b | – | – | 80 b | [24] |
| Finland (North Karelia) 1992–2002 | 1616 total (25–64 years) | 40 b | – | – | – | [25,26] |
| 974 males | 37 | 2.2 | 4.4 | – | ||
| 642 females | 44 | – | – | – | ||
| Finland (Eastern) 1984–1989 | 1605 males (42–60 years) | 48 (23) | 5.7 | – | – | [27] |
| Austria (Graz) 1991–1994 | 786 total (45–86 years) | 58 (21) | – | – | – | [28] |
| 330 males | 50 (20) | – | – | – | ||
| 456 females | 64 (19) | – | – | – | ||
| Spain (Alicante province) 2000–2001 | 545 total (>65 years) | 45 b | – | – | 131 b | [29] |
| 252 elderly males | 38 (20) | – | – | 125 (64) | ||
| 293 elderly females | 51 (18) | – | – | 136 (70) | ||
| Europe (France, Ireland, Spain Netherlands) | 349 total (25–45 years) | 59 b | – | – | – | [30] |
| 175 males | 54 (13–103) d | – | – | – | ||
| 174 females | 64 (6–117) d | – | – | – | ||
| Germany (Giessen) 1994–2004 | 279 total (62–92 years) | 71 b | – | – | 90 b | [31] |
| 98 elderly males | 62 (55–74) c | – | – | 84 (61–116) c | ||
| 181 elderly females | 76 (62–89) c | – | – | 93 (70–132) c | ||
| North America | ||||||
| United States 2003–2004 | 4438 total (≥20 years) | 49 (32–71) c | 8.4 | – | – | [32] |
| 2153 males | 45 (27–66) c | 10.0 | – | – | ||
| 2285 females | 53 (38–76) c | 6.9 | – | – | ||
| Canada (16 sites countrywide) 2012–2013 | 1615 total (20–79 years) | 53 | <3 | – | – | [33] |
| 804 males | 47 | – | – | – | ||
| 811 females | 59 | – | – | – | ||
| Canada (Toronto) 2004–2008 | 979 total (20–29 years) | 31 | 14 | 47 | 140/242 b,e | [34] |
| 287 males | 29 | 16 | 37 | 228 | ||
| 692 females | 33 | 13 | 45 | 248 | ||
| Asia-Pacific | ||||||
| Japan (Shibata, Niigata Prefecture) 1977 | 2185 total (40–89 years) | 51 b | – | – | – | [35] |
| 919 males | 43 (19) | – | – | – | ||
| 1266 females | 57 (17) | – | – | – | ||
| Japan (Itabashi, Tokyo) 2006 | 655 elderly females | 51 (9) | – | – | – | [36] |
| (70–84 years) | ||||||
| Singapore 1993–1995 | 941 total (30–69 years) | 37 b | 12 b | – | – | [37,38] |
| 468 males | 32 b | 17 b | – | – | ||
| 473 females | 41 b | 6.0 b | – | – | ||
| New Zealand (Canterbury region) 2010–2013 | 369 total (50 years) | 44 | 2.4 | 13 | 110 | [39] |
| 174 males | 41 | 4.0 | 15 | 113 | ||
| 195 females | 47 | 1.0 | 11 | 107 |
a Data represent mean (SD), if provided; b For missing data, weighted means were calculated; c Mean or median and interquartile range; d Mean and range; e Intake without/with supplement use.