Table 2.
Vitamin C status and prevalence of deficiency and hypovitaminosis C of adults in low- and middle-income countries.
| Country (Region) Sampling Dates | Population (Age Range) | Vitamin C Status (µmol/L) a | Deficiency (% <11 µmol/L) | Hypovitaminosis C (% <23 or 28 µmol/L) | Dietary Intake (mg/day) a | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper-middle | ||||||
| Russia (Pitkäranta District, Republic of Karelia) 1992–2002 | 1191 total (25–64 years) | 9.0 b | – | – | – | [25,26] |
| 579 males | 5.0 | 79 | 90 | – | ||
| 612 females | 13 | – | – | – | ||
| China (Shanghai) 1995–2001 | 2031 females (30–64 years) | 45 (48) | – | – | – | [53] |
| China (Linxian) 1999–2000 | 948 total (~50–79 years) | 33 (14–55) c | – | – | – | [54] |
| 473 males | 27 (11–50) c | – | – | – | ||
| 475 females | 37 (16–57) c | – | – | – | ||
| China (Gansu, Guangxi, Shandong, Fujian) 1999–2001 | 734 pregnant females (20–35 years) | 19 b | – | 66 | – | [55] |
| Thailand (Bangkok) 2003 | 209 total (23–68 years) | 36 (0–102) d | – | 31 b | – | [56] |
| 90 males | 37 (0–77) d | – | 33 | – | ||
| 119 females | – | 30 | – | |||
| Mexico (multiple states) | 855 non-pregnant females (12–49 years) | 19 | 39 | – | – | [45] |
| Mexico (Central-Queretaro state) 2012 | 580 females (37 years) e | 30 (13) | 5 | 32 | 72 b | [44] |
| Ecuador (Quito) 2003–2004 | 369 total (>65 years) | 15 b | 43 b | – | – | [46] |
| 125 elderly males | 11 (9) | 60 | – | – | ||
| 224 elderly females | 17 (10) | 33 | – | – | ||
| Brazil (Sao Paulo) 2008 | 117 pregnant females (≥15 years) | 33 (2) | 6 | 31 | – | [47] |
| South Africa (Cape Town) 2015 | 285 total (≥60 years) | 25 b | – | 66 b,f | 39 b | [48] |
| 53 elderly males | 23 | – | 84 f | 27 | ||
| 232 elderly females | 25 | – | 62 f | 42 | ||
| Lower-middle | ||||||
| India (North-Haryana state; South-Tamil Nadu) 2004–2006 | 5638 total (≥60 years) | – | 59 b | 81 b | 29 b | [57] |
| 2668 North total | – | 74 | 89 | 23 b | ||
| 1283 elderly males | – | 78 | – | – | ||
| 1385 elderly females | – | 71 | – | – | ||
| 2970 South total | – | 46 | 74 | 34 b | ||
| 1407 elderly males | – | 51 | – | – | ||
| 1563 elderly females | – | 40 | – | – | ||
| India (North-Balba-garh, Faridabad district) 2002–2003 | 1112 total (≥50 years) | ~15 b | – | – | – | [58] |
| ~48% males | 13 | – | – | – | ||
| ~52% females | 17 | – | – | – | ||
| India (West-Maharashtra state) 1998–2000 | 322 total (20–45 years) | 18 b | 18 b | 71 b | 34 b | [59] |
| 214 males | 17 (7) | 20 | 75 | 40 b | ||
| 108 females | 20 (7) | 13 | 63 | 29 b | ||
| Indonesia (West Java) 2011 | 98 total (39–50 years) | 29 (19) | 11 | 45 | – | [60] |
| 45 males; 53 females | ||||||
| Nigeria (Northwest-Kano state) 2009–2011 | 400 pregnant females (<20–39 years) | 20 (29) | – | 80 | – | [49] |
| Nigeria (South-east-Enugu) 2009 | 200 non-pregnant females (29 years) b,e | 74 b | 0 | 0 | 683 b,g | [50] |
| Low income | ||||||
| Uganda (Kampala) 2008–2009 | 600 females (15–49 years) | 12 b | 56 b | – | – | [51] |
| 400 pregnant | 11 (4) | 70 | – | – | ||
| 200 non-pregnant | 15 (6) | 28 | – | – |
a Data represent mean (SD), if provided, b For missing data, weighted means were calculated, c Mean or median and interquartile range, d Median and range; e Mean age; f Cutoff of 34 µmol/L; g Converted from weighted mean of 3882 µmol using Mr of 176.