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. 2020 Jul 15;12(7):2097. doi: 10.3390/nu12072097

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© 2020 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic representation of paracrine and intracrine function of vitamin D and its metabolites and actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D on the innate and adaptive immune systems. Abbreviation: 1,25(OH)₂D: 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D; 25(OH)D: 25-hydroxyvitamin D, IFN-Ƴ: interferon- Ƴ; IL: interleukin; MHC: membrane histocompatibility complex, T_H1: T helper 1; T_H2: T helper 2; T_H17: T helper 17; Treg: regulatory T cell, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor- α; TLR2: toll-like receptor 2; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4. Reproduced with permission from Holick MF, copyright 2020.