Figure 1.

Schematic representation of molecular pathways implied in the protective potential of astaxanthin (ASX): Due to its membrane penetrance, ASX has both intra- and extracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging actions. Moreover, in the phospholipid membrane, the ASX polyene chain participates in the reduction of lipid peroxidation. Through the regulation of different pathways, ASX reduces inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Red arrows indicate inhibitory action, and green arrows show enhancement action.