. 2020 Jul 15;21(14):4978. doi: 10.3390/ijms21144978

Table 2.

A summary of the demineralization and deproteinization of chitin and chitosan from crustaceans, mollusks, and other aquatic invertebrates.

Crustaceans, Mollusks, and Other Aquatic Invertebrates
Sources		Demineralization					Deproteinization					Yield	References
Scientific Name	Common Name	Type of Acid	Concentration	Temperature (°C)	Solution-to-Solid Ratio (mL/g)	Duration	Type of Alkali	Concentration	Temperature (°C)	Solution-to-Solid Ratio (mL/g)	Duration	Yield	References
Solenocera melantho	Pink shrimp	HCl	1.7 N	RT	9	N/A	NaOH	2.5 N	75	5	N/A	^a 22%	[56]
Palaemon fabricius	Shrimp	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 22%	[13]
Squilla mantis	Squilla shrimp	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 24%	[13]
Parapenaeopsis stylifera	Shrimp shells	HCl	0.25 M	RT	N/A	N/A	NaOH	1 M	RT	N/A	N/A	^a 20%	[101]
Pandalus borealus	Shrimp shells	HCl	1 M	100	N/A	20 min	NaOH	1 M	85	N/A	24 h	^a 6.89%	[55]
Pandalus borealus	Shrimp shells	HCl	1 M	100	N/A	20 min	Repeated several times during 24 h					^a 6.89%	[55]
Penaeus aztecus	Brown shrimp shells	HCl	1 M	RT	N/A	N/A	NaOH	1 M	105–110	N/A	N/A	^a 21.53%	[99]
Penaeus monodon	Black tiger shrimp waste	HCOOH C₆H₈O₇	0.25 M 0.25 M	N/A	30 28	30 min	NaOH	1 M	95	15	6 h	N/A	[104]
Penaeus durarum	Pink shrimp shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	NaOH	1 N	80	N/A	36 h	^a 23.72%	[86]
Penaeus durarum	Pink shrimp shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	Refluxed with NaCO₃, 12 h					^a 23.72%	[86]
Parapenaeus longirostris	Shrimp	HCl	1.23 N	RT	N/A	1 h	NaOH	3%	100	N/A	15 min	N/A	[105]
Squilla mantis	Squilla shrimp	HCl	1.23 N	RT	N/A	1 h	NaOH	3%	100	N/A	15 min	N/A	[105]
Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis	Pink shrimp	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	N/A	[106]
Penaeus carinatus	Shrimps	HCl	1%	RT	N/A	24 h	NaOH	2%–4%	+100	N/A	1 h	^b 35.49%	[24]
Penaeus monodon	Shrimps	HCl	1%	RT	N/A	24 h	NaOH	2%–4%	+100	N/A	1 h	^b 35.49%	[24]
Lipopenaeus vannamei	White shrimps	HCl	4%	RT	N/A	4 h	NaOH	5%	90	(w/v 1:10)	12 h	N/A	[107]
N/A	Shrimp shells	HCl	N/A	RT	N/A	15 min	NaOH	N/A	N/A	N/A	20 min	^a 14.8%	[91]
N/A	Shrimp shells	NaClO treatments for 10 min each before demineralization and deproteinization										^a 14.8%	[91]
Penaeus japonicus	Prawns	HCl	2 N	RT	50	48 h	NaOH	1 N	100	100	96 h	NA	[108]
Macrobrachium rosenbergii	Prawns shells	HCl	0.25 M	40	N/A	4 h	NaOH	0.25 M	N/A	N/A	4 h	^a 8.28%–5.02%	[109]
Litopenaeus vannameil	Prawn shells	HCl	0.5%–1%	25	4–10	24 h	NaOH	5%	60	8	2 h	^a 35.00% ^b 25.00%	[110]
Penaeus monodon	Giant tiger prawn	HCl	1 M	RT	15	N/A	NaOH	1 M	100	N/A	8 h	^a 10%	[92]
Paralithodes camstschatecus	Crabs	HCl	2 N	RT	50	48 h	NaOH	1 N	100	100	96 h	NA	[108]
Grapsus marmoratus	Marbled crab	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 10%	[13]
Portunus puber	Red crab	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 10%	[13]
Maia squinado	Spider crab	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 16%	[13]
Paralithodes camtschaticus	Crab	HCl	7%	RT	N/A	48 h	KOH	5%	N/A	N/A	6 h	^a 12.1%	[111]
N/A	Rice-field crab shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	NaOH	1 N	80	N/A	36 h	^a 15.2%	[86]
N/A	Rice-field crab shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	Refluxed with NaCO₃, 12 h					^a 15.2%	[86]
N/A	Crab shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	NaOH	1 N	80	N/A	36 h	^a 16.73%	[86]
N/A	Crab shells	HCl	1 N	100	N/A	20 min	Refluxed with NaCO₃, 12 h					^a 16.73%	[86]
N/A	Crab	HCl	N/A	RT	N/A	15 min	NaOH	N/A	N/A	N/A	20 min	^a 13.4%	[91]
N/A	Crab	NaClO treatments for 10 min each before demineralization and deproteinization										^a 13.4%	[91]
Portunus pelagicus	Blue swimming crab	HCl	2 N	RT	50	48 h	NaOH	1 N	100	100	96 h	NA	[84]
Potamon algeriense	Crab	HCl	1 N	RT	15	6 h	NaOH	3%	121	10	20 min	^a 8.27% ^b 5.89%	[112]
Potamon algeriense	Crab	HCl	1 N	RT	15	6 h	Autoclave at 15 psi					^a 8.27% ^b 5.89%	[112]
Macropipus holsatus	Crab	HCl	4%	RT	15	1 h	NaOH	3%	65	20	2 h	^a 12.23% ^b 9.52%	[113]
Panulirus japonicus	Lobsters	HCl	2 N	RT	50	48 h	NaOH	1 N	100	100	96 h	NA	[108]
Homarus vulgaris	Lobster	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 17%	[13]
Scyllarus arctus	Locust lobster	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 25%	[13]
Palinurus vulgaris	Spiny lobster	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 32%	[13]
Astacus fluviatilis	Crayfish	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 36%	[13]
Procambarus clarkii	Crayfish	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 20.6%	[13]
N/A	Crayfish	HCl	N/A	RT	N/A	15 min	NaOH	N/A	N/A	N/A	20 min	^a 15.3%	[91]
N/A	Crayfish	NaClO treatments for 10 min each before demineralization and deproteinization										^a 15.3%	[91]
Sepia officinalis	Cuttlefish	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 20%	[13]
Loligo vulgaris	Squid	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 40%	[13]
N/A	Cuttlefish pens	HCl	1 M	RT	N/A	N/A	NaOH	1 M	105–110	N/A	N/A	^a 5.4%	[99]
N/A	Squid pens	HCl	1 M	RT	N/A	N/A	NaOH	1 M	105–110	N/A	N/A	^a 49%	[99]
N/A	Mussel shells	HCl	0.68 M	RT	10	6 h	NaOH	0.62 M	N/A	10	16 h	^a 23.25%	[114]
Oniscus asellus	Woodlouse	HCl	4 M	75	N/A	2 h	NaOH	4 M	150	N/A	18 h	^a 6%–7%	[90]
Oniscus asellus	Woodlouse	Reflux in magnetic stirrer					Heat in magnetic stirrer					^a 6%–7%	[90]
Lepas anatifera	Barnacles	HCl	0.55 M	RT	N/A	1–24 h	NaOH	0.3 M	80–85	N/A	1 h	^a 7%	[13]
Chelonibia patula	Barnacles	HCl	1 M	N/A	N/A	10 min	NaOH	2 M	N/A	N/A	20 min	^a 3.1%	[102]
Daphnia magna	Water flea	HCl	1 M	65–75	N/A	6 h	NaOH	1 M	65	N/A	20h	^a 13%–21%	[115]
Conus inscriptus	Sea snail	HCl	1 M	60	N/A	30 min	NaOH	3 M	80	N/A	2 h	^a 21.65%	[103]

^a Chitin yield percentage; ^b chitosan yield percentage; NA: non-available; no data shown in reference.