Table 1.
Specific anti- or pro-inflammatory effects of diets, dietary compounds and body composition on intestinal macrophages and microbiota.
| Diets, Dietary Compounds and Body Composition |
Anti-Inflammatory | Pro-Inflammatory | Microbiota | Mechanisms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Western diet (WD) | - | ↑ | Microbiota dysbiosis, with perturbation of barrier integrity and alteration of intestinal immune cell homeostasis [110,111]. | Signaling modification via the NLRP6 inflammasome and TLRs; degradation of secretory IgAs and selective loss of IL-10-producing Treg lymphocytes [110,111]. |
| Mediterranean, Japanese and Vegetarian diets | ↑ | - | Beneficial effects on gut microbiota [142,143,144,145]. | Decrease serum markers of inflammation [142,143,144,145]. |
| Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) | - | ↑ | Gram-negative bacteria increase and intestinal permeability alteration [116]. | Pro-inflammatory response activation in macrophages [115]. |
| N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (n-3 PUFAs) | ↑ | - | - | Inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediator transcription; anti-inflammatory transcription response activation [117,118]; resolution of inflammation, increase macrophage phagocytosis and reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokine via specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) [119,120,121]. |
| Fiber and Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs) | ↑ | - | Promote the growth of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli; exert an anti-inflammatory activity on the gut microbiota [126]. | Anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory properties (inhibiting NFκB transcription via GPR41); immune response modulation in the intestine [49,50]. Down-regulation of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory mediators, including NO, IL-6, and IL-12 [46]. |
| Quercetin | ↑ | - | - | Suppress LPS-induced and spontaneous inflammation in organoids from, respectively, WT and ulcerative colitis mouse model [130]. |
| Vitamin A and Retinoic Acid (RA) | ↑ | - | Oral administration of RA inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis [61]. Vitamin A deficient diets favor a non-symptomatic reservoir of Escherichia coli-like enteric infections [58]. | Attenuate intestinal inflammation in experimental models [59]; RA reduces the synthesis of IL-12 and TNF-α from LPS-stimulated macrophages, while enhancing IL-10 production [60]. |
| Vitamin D | ↑ | - | Control of the gut microbial composition [54,135,136]. | Suppression of NFκB activity [134]. |
| Vitamin K | ↑ | - | - | Inhibition of inflammation via IL-6 suppression, in B cells of DSS-induced colitis mice [137]. |
| Adipose tissue in obesity | - | ↑ | - | Pro-inflammatory cytokine profile [140]; high infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages [54]. |