Table 3.
Influence of mycotoxins on the enteric nervous system.
| Mycotoxin | Dose Examined | Animal Species or Kind of Tissues | Experimental Method Used in the Study | Character of Changes in the ENS | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Doxynivalenol | from 0.2 mg/kg of chow to 2 mg/kg of chow | Wistar rats (Rattus novergicus) | immunohistochemistry and microscopic analysis | Reduction of the area of general population of the myenteric neurons, glial cells in the myenteric plexus and whole myenteric ganglia. | [14] |
| T2 Toxin | 12 µg/kg body weight/day | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number of VIP-positive enteric neurons and intramucosal and intramuscular nerve fibers containing VIP in the stomach and duodenum. | [15] |
| 200 µg/kg of feed | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number of CART-positive enteric neurons and intramucosal and intramuscular nerve fibers containing CART in the stomach, duodenum and descending colon. | [55] | |
| 12 µg/kg body weight/day | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number and changes in neurochemical character of CGRP-positive enteric neurons in the descending colon. | [16] | |
| Zearalenon | 10 μg/kg body weight/day | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number of nerve fibers immunoreactive to CART, SP, NOS, VIP, PACAP and decrease in the number of GAL-positive nerve fibers in the muscular layer of the ileum. | [19] |
| 0.1 mg/kg of chow/day | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number of nerve fibers immunoreactive to SP and VIP with changes in their morphology | [21] | |
| 12 µg/kg body weight/day | domestic pig of the White Large Polish Breed | Immunofluorescence method and microscopic analysis | Increase in the number and changes in neurochemical character of neurons immunoreactive to CGRP in the descending colon. | [16] | |
| Patulin | EC50 = 1 ng/µL | culture of the enteric neurons from C57B6/J OlaHsd mice | Growth and viability testing, cytotoxicity test, evaluation of calcium signaling, measurement of glucose content, neurite outgrowth measurement and reactive oxygen species (ROS) test | Reduction of ATP levels and glucose concentration, disorders in calcium signaling in the enteric neurons, changes in their morphology. | [71] |
| Fumonisins | 1 and 3 mg/kg body weight | Wistar rats (Rattus novergicus) | immunohistochemistry method | Reduction of the size of neurons in the enteric ganglia. | [12] |
| 90 mg/kg body weight | Wistar rats (Rattus novergicus) | immunohistochemistry method and histomorphometrical analysis | Reduction of area and mean diameter of the submucous plexuses in duodenum. Reduction of area and mean diameter of myenteric and submucous plexuses in the jejunum, increase of sphericity of the enteric ganglia. | [13] |
VIP—vasoactive intestinal polypeptide; CART—cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript; CGRP—calcitonin gene related peptide; SP—substance P; NOS—nitric oxide synthase; PACAP—pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide; GAL—galanin.