Table 1.

Cardiovascular complications of COVID‐19

	Incidence	Manifestations in COVID‐19 patients	Ref.
Myocardial injury	7.2–40.9%	Elevation of myocardial biomarker levels (e.g. TnI/T) Non‐specific changes on electrocardiography and echocardiography	(Table  2 ) 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
Acute myocarditis	– a	Elevation of myocardial biomarker levels (e.g. TnI/T) Diffuse or focal ST‐segment elevation on electrocardiography Myocardial oedema, ventricular hypokinesis and late gadolinium enhancement on echocardiography or magnetic resonance imaging Myocardial inflammation and SARS‐CoV‐2 genome confirmed by autopsy or biopsy	22, 23, 24, 25, 26
Pulmonary embolism	27–33% b	Elevation of D‐dimer levels Acute pulmonary embolism on computed tomography pulmonary angiography Deep vein thrombosis on ultrasonography	27, 28, 29, 30
Disseminated intravascular coagulation	22–97%	Haemorrhagic tendency and microcirculation disturbance Elevation of D‐dimer and fibrin degradation product levels Decrease in platelet counts and fibrinogen levels Prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time	29, 31
Stroke	25%	Hemiplegia, dysarthria gaze preference and facial weakness Infarct lesion on computed tomography	16, 29, 32
Acute heart failure	19.4–52% c	Elevation of NT‐proBNP levels Pulmonary oedema on chest radiography Enlarged ventricle and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction on echocardiography	11, 16, 33
Malignant arrhythmia/cardiac arrest	7–11.1%	Rapid ventricular tachycardia lasting >30 s or ventricular fibrillation on electrocardiography Haemodynamic instability Syncope Sudden death	17, 34

COVID‐19, coronavirus disease 2019; NT‐proBNP, N‐terminal pro B‐type natriuretic peptide; SARS‐CoV‐2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TnI/T, troponin I/T.

^aNo incidence data available.

^bOnly patients suspected of having pulmonary embolism underwent computed tomography pulmonary angiography, so the real incidence may be lower.

^cIncidence in severe or deceased cohorts.