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Generalized graphical depiction of mucus layer and proposed fate of different types of particles on topical administration: microparticles and conventional (mucoadhesive) nanoparticles are trapped in the outer (secreted) mucus layer and eliminated by mucus clearance; MPPs avoid adhesion in the rapidly cleared outer mucus layer, achieve a more uniform distribution, and penetrate toward the slowly cleared membrane-associated layer. MPPs, mucus-penetrating particles.
