Table 1.

Regulation mechanisms of β-catenin phosphorylation

Subcellular localization	Regulators	Sites	Function	Reference(s)
Membrane	Fer, Fyn, c-Met	Y142	Diminishes α-catenin binding	[38]
	c-Src,cMet, EGFR	Y654	Dissociates the E-cadherin/β-catenin complex	[44]
	Ab1	Y489	Dissociates the E-cadherin/β-catenin complex	[45]
	c-Src	Y86	Promotes the separation of Y654 and E-cadherins	[37]
	PKD1	T120	Transports β-catenin to the Golgi apparatus	[46]
	PT1B	Y654	Removes the phosphate group from the phosphorylated Y654 site	[47]
Cytoplasm	CK1	S45	Embarks β-catenin for β-Trcp recognition	[48]
	GSK3β	S33, S37, T41	Embarks β-catenin for β-Trcp recognition	[48]
Nucleus	Fer,Fyn,Yes,and Src	T142	Promotes β-catenin binding to the nuclear transporter Bcl9	[38]
	AKT and PKA	S552, S675	Strengthens β-catenin/TCF reporter activation	[42, 43]
	PKAL	S663	Regulates its transcriptional activity and induces target gene expression	[49]
	CK1	S45	Sox9 transfers the destruction complex “GSK3β-βTRCP-CK1-Axin” into the nucleus and diminishes nuclear β-catenin	[110]
	GSK3β	S33, S37, T41	Sox9 transfers the destruction complex “GSK3β-βTRCP-CK1-Axin” into the nucleus and diminishes nuclear β-catenin	[110]