Table 5.
Characteristics of the studies which analyzed the transgenerational effects of BPA exposure.
| Epigenetic modification | Effects | Study type | Species | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Histone acetylation DNA methylation |
Apoptosis and impairment of the meiotic process | In vitro | Fish | (39) |
| DNA methylation | • Decrease in histone acetylation of H3K9, H3K27, and H4K12 • Increase in protein expression of deacetylase Sirt1 • Reduction in binding of Sirt1 and ERβ to caveolin-1 |
In vivo | Mouse | (46) |
| DNA methylation | Downregulation of the gene expression of DNMTS and related transcription factors | In vivo | Rat | (47) |
| DNA methylation | • Hypomethylation of the H19 imprinting control region • Downregulation in the transcript expression of IGF2 and H19 |
In vivo | Rat | (48) |
| DNA methylation | • Expression of DNMT3A in Sertoli cells • Strengthening of DNMT3B and weakening H3K9me2 and H3K9me3 in germ cells of the neonatal testis |
In vivo | Mouse | (49) |
| DNA methylation | • Impairment of primordial germ cell (PGC) migration to the genital ridge • Dysregulation of genes involved in PGC migration (CXCR4B and SDF1A) • No alteration of DNA methylation |
In vivo | Fish | (50) |
| Gene expression | • Increase in the rate of heart failure of progeny up to the second generation deriving from females that mated with males exposed to BPA • Downregulation of 5 genes involved in cardiac development in first-generation embryos • Decrease in parents and first-generation sperm remnant mRNAs related to early development |
In vivo | Fish | (51) |
| DNA methylation | Maintenance of chromosome structure through epigenetic regulation correlated with sperm functionality | In vivo | Bull | (53) |
| DNA methylation | Hypermethylation of IGF2, glucose intolerance, and β-cell dysfunction in islets in offspring | In vivo | Rat | (55) |
| DNA methylation | Global DNA methylation decreased in the first-generation sperm | In vivo | Rat | (56) |
| DNA methylation | Sperm DMR correlation with several adult-onset pathologies (e.g., mammary tumors, prostate disease, kidney disease, testis abnormalities, immune abnormalities) in offspring | In vivo | Rat | (57) |