Table 1.
Unadjusted Demographic Characteristics for Concurrent Use of Opioids and Other Central Nervous System-Active Medications: Opioids Only, Opioids Plus One, and Opioids Plus ≥Two
| All Mean or % | Opioids only Mean or % | Opioids plus 1 Mean or % | Opioids plus ≥2 Mean or % | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | 209,947 | 119,744 | 58,463 | 31,740 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 31.0 | 33.5 | 28.9 | 25.3 |
| Female | 69.0 | 66.5 | 71.1 | 74.7 |
| Age (years) | 75.6 | 75.9 | 75.8 | 74.2 |
| 65–69 | 25.7 | 24.6 | 24.9 | 31.6 |
| 70–74 | 26.8 | 26.3 | 26.3 | 29.3 |
| 75–79 | 19.6 | 19.8 | 19.9 | 18.2 |
| 80–85 | 12.4 | 12.7 | 13.1 | 10.3 |
| ≥85 | 15.5 | 16.6 | 15.9 | 10.6 |
| Minority (from zip codes) | ||||
| Low | 48.1 | 48.6 | 48.0 | 46.8 |
| Medium | 46.9 | 46.3 | 47.3 | 48.7 |
| High | 3.4 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 3.1 |
| Median Income (from zip codes) | ||||
| Low | 18.0 | 17.2 | 18.9 | 19.1 |
| Medium | 38.1 | 37.6 | 38.9 | 38.7 |
| High | 43.6 | 44.8 | 41.9 | 42.0 |
| Region | ||||
| Midwest | 17.5 | 18.1 | 17.4 | 15.7 |
| Northeast | 16.3 | 17.3 | 15.6 | 13.9 |
| South | 43.6 | 41.9 | 44.5 | 48.1 |
| West | 22.3 | 22.4 | 22.3 | 22.1 |
| Access to health care | ||||
| PCP per 100,000 capita | 131.0 | 131.7 | 130.6 | 129.3 |
| Plan type | ||||
| High | 78.0 | 77.4 | 78.1 | 80.1 |
| Medium | 2.9 | 2.9 | 3.1 | 2.7 |
| Other | 19.1 | 19.7 | 18.9 | 17.2 |
| HCC Score | ||||
| ≤0.50 | 19.4 | 21.9 | 16.6 | 15.2 |
| 0.50 to <1.20 | 40.1 | 41.9 | 38.6 | 36.0 |
| 1.20 to <2.80 | 31.9 | 29.4 | 34.4 | 36.9 |
| ≥2.8 | 8.6 | 6.8 | 10.4 | 12.0 |
| CCI Conditions | ||||
| Dementia | 10.2 | 8.8 | 11.0 | 14.2 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 30.2 | 27.7 | 32.1 | 36.3 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis | 8.8 | 8.0 | 9.6 | 10.6 |
| PDG Conditions | ||||
| Opioid use disorders | 9.2 | 6.9 | 10.5 | 15.2 |
| Major depression | 21.3 | 16.3 | 23.2 | 36.6 |
| Anxiety disorders | 22.0 | 14.9 | 26.0 | 41.7 |
| Insomnia dx | 11.0 | 6.6 | 13.4 | 23.4 |
| Pneumonia dx | 10.3 | 8.9 | 11.2 | 13.7 |
| Respiratory distress dx | 28.9 | 27.1 | 30.2 | 33.3 |
| Serotonin syndrome dx | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 1.0 |
| Low back pain dx | 46.4 | 41.5 | 51.0 | 56.3 |
| Injury fall/hip fracture dx | 11.8 | 11.6 | 11.3 | 13.4 |
| Hip fracture dx | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 2.3 |
| Injurious fall dx | 10.8 | 10.6 | 10.4 | 12.4 |
| Any inpatient hospitalization | 32.3 | 33.2 | 29.8 | 33.4 |
| Number of ER visits | ||||
| 0 | 53.5 | 54.0 | 54.8 | 49.1 |
| 1–2 | 33.8 | 34.2 | 32.6 | 34.1 |
| ≥3 | 12.8 | 11.8 | 12.6 | 16.7 |
| Opioid category | ||||
| Long acting | 9.6 | 5.4 | 12.6 | 20.1 |
| Short acting, other Schedule II | 5.1 | 3.9 | 5.5 | 8.8 |
| Short acting, oxycodone | 31.7 | 30.8 | 30.1 | 38.0 |
| Short acting, hydrocodone | 49.2 | 48.8 | 48.7 | 51.6 |
| Short acting, Schedule III–IV | 9.7 | 10.9 | 8.3 | 8.0 |
| Tramadol | 46.5 | 49.9 | 44.6 | 37.1 |
| Concurrent use of opioids with other CNS medications | ||||
| Opioids and gabapentinoids | 20.8 | 0.0 | 38.8 | 66.0 |
| Opioids and benzodiazepines | 18.4 | 0.0 | 31.9 | 63.1 |
| Opioids and non-benzo hypnotics | 12.3 | 0.0 | 17.5 | 49.3 |
| Opioids and muscle relaxants | 7.8 | 0.0 | 8.7 | 35.7 |
| Opioids and antipsychotics | 3.1 | 0.0 | 3.1 | 14.5 |
Notes: All variables are statistically significant at P < 0.0001. Missing categories deleted for brevity.
CCI, Charlson comorbidity index; CNS, central nervous system; dx, diagnoses codes; ER, emergency room; HCC, Hierarchical Condition Category; PCP, primary care provider; PDG, Psychiatric Diagnosis Groups.