Table 6.
Adjusted Odds Ratios for Three or More Emergency Room Visits Associated with Opioids and Other Central Nervous System-Active Medications: Plus One and Plus ≥Two
| Variable | Depression models ≥3 ER visits |
Anxiety models ≥3 ER visits |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds ratio | P value | Odds ratio | P value | |
| Opioid plus 1 CNS medication | 0.97 | 0.08 | 0.94 | <0.0001 |
| Opioid plus ≥2 CNS medications | 1.21 | <0.0001 | 1.14 | <0.0001 |
| Female | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.95 | 0.002 |
| Age 70–74 | 1.18 | <0.0001 | 1.18 | <0.0001 |
| Age 75–79 | 1.48 | <0.0001 | 1.48 | <0.0001 |
| Age 80–84 | 1.88 | <0.0001 | 1.88 | <0.0001 |
| Age ≥85 | 2.14 | <0.0001 | 2.15 | <0.0001 |
| Minority low | 0.90 | 0.001 | 0.89 | 0.0003 |
| Minority medium | 0.91 | 0.004 | 0.91 | 0.003 |
| Income low | 1.05 | 0.02 | 1.03 | 0.20 |
| Income middle | 1.04 | 0.009 | 1.03 | 0.03 |
| Midwest | 1.04 | 0.03 | 1.06 | 0.004 |
| Northeast | 0.99 | 0.64 | 0.99 | 0.56 |
| West | 1.04 | 0.04 | 1.07 | 0.0002 |
| Plan type: medium | 0.90 | 0.007 | 0.90 | 0.009 |
| Plan type: others | 0.91 | <0.0001 | 0.91 | <0.0001 |
| PCP per 100,000 capita | 1.00 | 0.003 | 1.00 | 0.01 |
| Rheumatoid arthritis dx | 1.35 | <0.0001 | 1.38 | <0.0001 |
| Opioid use disorders | 1.98 | <0.0001 | 1.96 | <0.0001 |
| Depression dx | 2.24 | <0.0001 | - | - |
| Anxiety dx | - | - | 2.30 | <0.0001 |
| Insomnia dx | 1.40 | <0.0001 | 1.37 | <0.0001 |
| Low back pain dx | 0.84 | <0.0001 | 0.83 | <0.0001 |
Notes: Reference categories included: male; age 65–69; minority high; income high; South; plan type: high; no rheumatoid arthritis; no opioid use disorders; no depression; no anxiety; no insomnia; and no low back pain.
CNS, central nervous system; dx, diagnosis code; ER, emergency room; PCP, primary care provider.