Table 1.
Summary of the main characteristics of bio-based materials for packaging and textile applications.
| Bio-Based Material | Synthetic/Non-Synthetic Produced Polymer | Classification | Common Feedstock or Source | Monomer/Sub-Unit | Common Production Technique | Main Intrinsic Variables | Expected Production Capacity by 2023 (Million Tonnes) [29] | End of Life (Common) | Recent Investigations in the Field of Packaging | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polylactic Acid (PLA) | Synthetic | Aliphatic Polyester | Corn, Corn Stover, Sugarcane Bagasse, Sugar Beet, Rice Hulls | Lactic Acid (L- and D-Isomers) | Ring Opening Polymerisation Technique; Polycondensation | Ratio of Isomers; Molecular Weight | 0.83 | Industrial Composting, Mechanical and Chemical recy Cling | CopolymerizAtion with Dicarboxylic Acids; Degradation Accelerating Modifications or Additives; Blending PLA | [30,31,32,33,34] |
| Polyethylene Furanoate (PEF) | Synthetic | Aromatic Polyester | Corn, Wheat | 2,5-FurandicarboXylic Acid, Monoethylene Glycol | Polycondensation | Molecular Weight | No Data | Target Recycling when Market Grows | Alternative Feedstocks: Techniques to Lower the price | [35,36] |
| Polybutylene Succinate (PBS) | Synthetic | Aliphatic Polyester | Sugar Cane, Sugar Beet, Corn, Potato, Wheat | Succinic Acid and 1,4-Butanediol, | Polyconcensation | Molecular Weight | 0.54 (Includes PBS, PBAT and PCL) | Chemical/Catalytic Recycling, Enzymatic Depolymerisation | PBS in Composites to Enhance Processability | [29,37,38,39,40,41] |
| PolyhydroxyalkaNoate (PHA) | Non-Synthetic | Aliphatic Polyester (Family) | Sugars and Emerging Trials with Waste Biomass | Depending on the Sub Type | Microbial Fermentation | Molecular Weight; Monomer Types; Crystallinity | 0.17 | Industrial and Home Composting; Biogas Installation | Reduction of Production Costs (Mixed Microbial Cultures; Low Cost Feedstocks; Fillers or Blends) | [9,25,41,42,43,44] |
| Cellulose | Non-Synthetic | Polysaccharide | Plant material | β-D-Glucose | Naturally Occurring | Regenerated Cellulose | 0.03 | Home composting, Industrial Composting, Anaerobic Digestion; | Cellulose Nanocrystal and Cellulose Nanofiber Films and Composites | [41,45,46,47] |
| Starch | Non-Synthetic | Polysaccharide | Potatoes, Corn, Wheat, Rice, Tapioca | D-Glucose | Naturally Occurring | Thermoplastic Starch | 0.22 | Totally Biodegradabl; Industrial or Home Compost | Starch in Composite Films | [41,48,49,50,51] |
| Protein | Non-Synthetic | Proteins | Plants and Animals | Amino Acids | Naturally Occurring | Amino Acid Composition, Source; Degree of Denaturation; Purity | No Data | Totally Biodegradable | Physical, Chemical, and Enzymatic Modifications of Protein Films and Coatings | [12,13,15,16,20] |
| Lipids and Waxes | Non-Synthetic | Lipids | Plants and Animals | Fatty Acids and Other Hydrocarbons | Naturally Occurring | Carbon Length of Fatty Acid; Source; Accompanying Substances | No Data | Totally Biodegradable | Edible Coatings; Multilayer | [31,52,53] |