Table 1.

Chitosan as a matrix for the encapsulation of natural products.

Source Name	Extract	Biological Study	Main Constituents	Chitosan (CS) Characteristics	Preparation Method	Outcome	Ref.
Centella asiatica	C. asiatica ethanolic extract	Microculture tetrazolium assay for analysis of the proliferation of normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) and normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEK), test on type I and III collagen synthesis using ELISA, immunocytochemistry in combination with ImageJ software for the evaluation of Aquaporin 3 expression	Asiatic acid, madecassic acid, asiaticoside and madecassoside	CS with a deacetylation degree >70%	Ionic gelation	Anti-aging activity by inducing skin cell (fibroblasts and keratinocytes) proliferation and AQP3 expression	[122]
Physalis alkekengi	Hydro-alcoholic extract of seeds of P. alkekengi	Non-biological but antioxidant assays: DPPH, FRAP	Physalins, carotenoids, alkaloids, polyphenols, flavonoids	Low MW CS	Ionic gelation using TPP	Improved antioxidant capacity	[126]
Theobroma cacao	Golden apple and red grape	DPPH assay			Nanoemulsification-solvent displacement method and Tween as the emulsifier	Enhanced antioxidant activity	[129]
	Cocoa bean procyanidins (CPs) extract	Cell apoptosis with annexin V staining and cytotoxicity assay in the THP-1 cell line	Procyanidin oligomers (from monomer to decamers) and polymers, with polymers being the predominant component	CS (low MW, 75–85% deacetylated)	Preparation of CPs-gelatin-CS nanoparticles	Improved stability and good apoptotic effects at lower concentrations in human acute monocytic leukemia THP-1 cells	[173]
Camellia sinensis	Green Tea Extract (GTE) distilled water extract	Uptake study in HepG2 cells, test on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats	epicatechin gallate(ECG), epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin(EC) and caffeine	Water-soluble, low MW CS obtained from mushroom	Ionic gelation using TPP	Effective in removing all the extracellular collagen caused byCCl4 in the hepatic fibrosis rat liver	[159]
Allivum sativum	Garlic aqueous extract	In vitro drug release			Ionic gelation	High stability and in vitro release for future use in many diseases such as cancer	[162]
Sapindus emarginatus	Sapindus extract with distilled ethanol	Specific cytotoxic assay (MTT) against prostate/oral cancer cells/normal cells	Saponin	Average molecular weight (MW) 20 kDa, degree ofN-deacetylation (75–80%)	Ionic gelation using TPP	Potential therapeutic agent for cancer, inducing dose-dependent cancer cell death with lower toxicity on normal cells	[163]
Vacciniumma crocarpon	Cranberry proanthocyanidins (PAC)	Determinationof the effect on the (extra-intestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli) ExPEC invasion of gut epithelial cells in vitro	Flavonolglycosides, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and hydroxycinnamic acids, but use only of proanthocyanidin enriched fraction (PAC)	CS from shrimp shells (deacetylation degree of 92%, MW185 kDa	Ionic gelation	Increased stability and molecular adhesion of PAC to ExPEC	[164]
Prunus avium L.	Crognola cherry fruits extract	In vitro test on HUVECs (Human umbilical vein endothelialcells)stressed with H2O2	Polyphenols	S-protected thiolated derivative		Protection of the endothelial cells from oxidative stress related to vascular dysfunction implied in a number of cardiovascular pathologies.	[165]
Vaccinium corymbosum	Blueberry fruit ethanol extract	In vitro antifungal evaluation (sporulation and germination were measured) on Alternaria alternata from Ficuscarica and Rosmarinus officinalis	Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and anthocyanins	Medium MWCS (deacetylation degree 75–85%)		Weak antifungal activity against A. alternata from fig and rosemary	[167]
Byrsonima crassifolia	Nanche leaves methanol extract	In vitro antifungal evaluation (sporulation and germination were measured) on Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolated from Carica papaya L. and Annona muricata L.	Fatty acids, diterpenes, phenolic compounds and monoterpenes	Medium MW CS (deacetylation degree 75–85%)		Improved control of C. gloeosporioides isolated from papaya and soursop leading to synergistic effect	[167]
Uncaria gambier Roxb.	Catechin (gambier) extract	No-biological assays, DPPH assay	Higher levels of catechin (42%): catechin acid and catechu tannat acid and small quantity of quercetin	CS (deacetylation degree: 85%)		Good particle surface topography, internal structure of the particles and emulsion stability, good antioxidant activity	[169]
Sphaeranthus amaranthoides	Alkaloid extract		Alkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, proteins and steroids	CS-alginate nanoparticles		Good apoptotic inducer in vitro, inhibition of the cell growth via induction of apoptosis in A549 cell line.	[170]
Crocus sativus	Saffron and ultrafine saffron aqueous extract	In vitro cytotoxicity study measuring the viability of HUVE cells incorporation in sunscreen emulsions (emulsion stability and SPF determination assays)	Crocin-1, crocin-2, crocetin, safranal	CS with high MW (MW: 350,000 g/moL, deacetylation degree >75%, and viscosity 800–2000 cps)	Ionic gelation using TPP	Formed nanoparticles with spherical and irregular shape, and size varied from ~150 to ~500 nm, crystalline dispersion, for sunscreen emulsions: good stability, viscosity, low cytotoxicity.	[171]
Bixaorellana	Annatto and ultrafine annatto (UF)	In vitrocytotoxicity study measuring the viability of HUVE cells incorporation in sunscreen emulsions (emulsion stability and SPF determination assays)	Carotenoids, apocarotenoids, sterols, aliphatic compounds, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids	CS with high MW (MW: 350,000 g/moL, deacetylation degree >75%, and viscosity 800–2000 cps)	Ionotropic gelation method using TPP	Formed nanoparticles with spherical and irregular shape, and size varied from ~150 to ~500 nm, amorphous dispersion in the case of annatto and UF annatto, for sunscreen emulsions: good stability, viscosity, low cytotoxicity.	[172]
Rhizome of turmeric			Curcumin (~77%), demethoxycurcumin (~17%) and bisdemethoxycurcumin (~3%)		Complex coacervation, using Tween 80 as the emulsifier and formaldehyde as the cross-linking agent		[174]
Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile.	Hydroalcoholic extract				Ionic gelation method with TPP	Improvement of the aqueous solubility of the extract	[175]