Table 5.

Effect of autophagy modulators on the replication levels of coronavirus in cell cultures.

Drug	Action Mechanism on Autophagy	Coronavirus Species
		Inhibited	Non-Inhibited a
3-MA	Inhibition of class III PtdIns3K [102]	MHV [51], PEDV [58]
Bafilomycin A1	Inhibition of V-ATPase, raise lysosomal/vacuolar pH and inhibition of autolysosome formation [24,103]		PEDV [60]
(Hydroxy-) Chloroquine *	Raise lysosomal pH, inhibit autolysosome formation and disorganize Golgi [53]	PEDV [58], SARS-CoV [104,105] SARS-CoV-2 [97,106]
GW5074/Dramafenib *	Inhibition of RAF1/c-Raf1 [107]	MERS-CoV [43]
LY294002	Inhibitor of PtdIns3K and PI3K [108]		TGEV [57]
Nitazoxanide/Alinia *	Blockage of late-stage lysosome acidification [96]	SARS-CoV-2 [97]
Reserpine *	Inhibitor of autolysosome formation [109]	SARS-CoV [79]
UO126	Inhibition of MAPK/ERK pathway [73]	MERS-CoV [43]
Wortmannin	Inhibitor of PtdIns3K and PI3Ks [108]	MERS-CoV [43]	IBV [31], PEDV [60], TGEV [57]

^a non-affected or increased. * FDA approved drugs. In bold, drugs showing IC₅₀ ≤ 1 µM. Cell lines used: Huh7 [43] for MERS-CoV; IPEC-J2 [60] for PEDV; MEF [51] for MHV; ST [57] for TGEV; Vero for IBV [31] and SARS-CoV-2 [106]; Vero-E6 for PEDV [58], SARS-CoV [79,104,105] and SARS-CoV-2 [97].