Table 4.

Carbon nanomaterial-based glycan biosensors and their characteristics.

Carbohydrate	Immobilization	Interface	Transducer	Analyte	LOD	Ref.
thiomannosyl dimer	Au–S bond	Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)/Au NPs	GCE electrode	lung cells	10 cells·mL−1	[124]
				liver cells	40 cells·mL−1
				prostate cells	15 cells·mL−1
mannose	CuAAC chemistry	Borromean rings	mechanical (QCM)	Con A	KD = 147 nM	[115]
		Dodecaamine cages			KD = 1.21 μM
		fullerenes			KD = 1.02 μM
glucose, mannose, galactose, maltose and lactose	amide-coupling reaction	CDs	optical	undefined	undefined	[116]
lactose	click chemistry (PEG)			HeLa cells		[117]
				MDA cells
mannose	amide-coupling reaction	SWCNTs	ELLA (96-well plate)	Con A		[118,119]
		micelles
	CuAAC chemistry	Borromean rings	mechanical (QCM)		152 nM	[120]
		dodecaamine cages			3.68 μM
		monovalent reference MR·1 M			KD = 10.9 mM
Tn antigen	amide-coupling reaction	BSA	GPOx SPE	GOD3-2C4 antibody	10 aM	[121]
				DBA	1 aM
mannose	click chemistry (PEG)	anthraquinone	GPOx SPE	Con A	down to nM	[123]
				macrophage M2	undefined
				E. coli MG1655	undefined