. 2020 Jul 1;9(7):2072. doi: 10.3390/jcm9072072

Table 2.

Biomarker concentrations by self-reported medication intake. ¹

	No Medication (n = 1029)	1–2 Regular Meds (n = 640)	3–4 Regular Meds (n = 259)	≥5 Regular Meds (n = 190)	p
Ascorbic Acid (mg/L)	4.20 (4.01; 4.40)	4.46 (4.22; 4.72)	4.41 (4.01; 4.83)	3.84 (3.44; 4.26)	0.068
Retinol (µmol/L)	1.67 (1.64; 1.69) ^a	1.70 (1.67; 1.74) ^a,b	1.78 (1.72; 1.83) ^b,c	1.84 (1.77; 1.91) ^c	0.000
Lutein (µmol/L)	0.277 (0.268; 0.286)	0.278 (0.266; 0.291)	0.276 (0.258; 0.296)	0.259 (0.237; 0.282)	0.391
Zeaxanthin (µmol/L)	0.046 (0.045; 0.048) ^a	0.045 (0.042; 0.047) ^a,b	0.044 (0.040; 0.047) ^a,b	0.039 (0.035; 0.043) ^b	0.011
β-Cryptoxanthin (µmol/L)	0.200 (0.190; 0.211)	0.215 (0.201; 0.231)	0.198 (0.176; 0.224)	0.186 (0.163; 0.212)	0.176
α-Carotene (µmol/L)	0.145 (0.139; 0.153) ^a	0.146 (0.137; 0.155) ^a	0.116 (0. 107; 0.127) ^b	0.121 (0.107; 0.137) ^b	0.000
β-Carotene (µmol/L)	0.564 (0.541; 0.587) ^a	0.555 (0.528; 0.583) ^a	0.479 (0.443; 0.518) ^b	0.459 (0.413; 0.511) ^b	0.000
Lycopene (µmol/L)	0.748 (0.723; 0.773) ^a	0.702 (0.673; 0.732) ^a,c	0.582 (0.536; 0.629)^b	0.621 (0.566; 0.678) ^b,c	0.000
α-Tocopherol (µmol/L)	27.3 (26.9; 27.8) ^a	28.3 (27.7; 28.8) ^b	28.7 (27.8; 29.6) ^b	28.3 (27.2; 29.5) ^a,b	0.008
γ-Tocopherol (µmol/L)	1.27 (1.22; 1.31)	1.26 (1.20; 1.32)	1.36 (1.31; 1.48)	1.38 (1.28; 1.49)	0.018
α-Tocopherol/Cholesterol (µmol/mmol)	4.95 (4.89; 5.02) ^a	5.15 (5.05; 5.24) ^b	5.41 (5.27; 5.55) ^c	5.64 (5.45; 5.83) ^c	0.000
γ-Tocopherol/Cholesterol (µmol/mmol)	0.231 (0.223; 0.238) ^a	0.232 (0.222; 0.243) ^b	0.265 (0.258; 0.282) ^c	0.277 (0.258; 0.298) ^c	0.000
Cholesterol (mmol/L)	5.62 (5.56; 5.68) ^a	5.62 (5.53; 5.70) ^a,b	5.42 (5.29; 5.54) ^b	5.14 (4.97; 5.30) ^c	0.000

¹ Data are geometric means (95% CI). ^a,b,c Geometric means in a row without a common superscript letter differ statistically significantly (p < 0.05), as analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s Post Hoc test.