Table 3.
Association of medication intake with biomarkers after adjusting for covariables.
| B | 95% CI | (η2) | Difference 3 (Unit) | Difference 4 (%) | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (SR) Ascorbic Acid (mg/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.008 | (−0.042; 0.026) | 0.000 | −0.032 | −0.75 | 0.657 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.016 | (−0.044; 0.012) | 0.001 | −0.086 | −2.02 | 0.276 |
| (SR) Retinol (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | 0.021 | (0.014; 0.029) | 0.016 | 0.058 | 3.38 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | 0.017 | (0.009; 0.024) | 0.009 | 0.038 | 2.26 | 0.000 |
| (SR) Lutein (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.004 | (−0.010; 0.003) | 0.001 | −0.004 | −1.44 | 0.241 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.007 | (−0.014; −0.000) | 0.002 | −0.009 | −3.31 | 0.037 |
| (SR) Zeaxanthin (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.005 | (−0.008; −0.002) | 0.005 | −0.002 | −4.43 | 0.002 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1,2 | 0.004 | (−0.007; 0.014) | 0.000 | −0.002 | −4.49 | 0.468 |
| (Ln) β-Cryptoxanthin (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.013 | (−0.053; 0.026) | 0.000 | −0.003 | −1.29 | 0.511 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.033 | (−0.070; 0.004) | 0.001 | −0.008 | −3.90 | 0.083 |
| (Ln) α-Carotene (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.073 | (−0.108; −0.038) | 0.008 | −0.009 | −6.48 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.045 | (−0.078; −0.012) | 0.004 | −0.012 | −8.50 | 0.007 |
| (Ln) β-Carotene (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.069 | (−0.099; −0.040) | 0.010 | −0.033 | −6.18 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.060 | (−0.088; −0.032) | 0.009 | −0.062 | −11.44 | 0.000 |
| (SR) Lycopene (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.034 | (−0.044; −0.023) | 0.019 | −0.052 | −7.54 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | −0.010 | (−0.021; 0.001) | 0.002 | −0.025 | −3.52 | 0.063 |
| (Ln) α-Tocopherol (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | 0.017 | (0.005; 0.028) | 0.004 | 0.485 | 1.74 | 0.004 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1,2 | 0.053 | (0.013; 0.092) | 0.003 | −1.282 | −4.60 | 0.009 |
| (Ln) γ-Tocopherol (µmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | 0.032 | (0.008; 0.057) | 0.003 | 0.044 | 3.41 | 0.010 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1,2 | 0.040 | (−0.038; 0.118) | 0.000 | −0.023 | −1.77 | 0.312 |
| (Ln) α-Tocopherol/Cholesterol (µmol/mmol) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | 0.043 | (0.034; 0.053) | 0.038 | 0.238 | 4.63 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | 0.034 | (0.024; 0.045) | 0.020 | 0.148 | 2.89 | 0.000 |
| (Ln) γ-Tocopherol/Cholesterol (µmol/mmol) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | 0.061 | (0.037; 0.085) | 0.012 | 0.016 | 6.78 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1 | 0.031 | (0.006; 0.055) | 0.003 | 0.003 | 1.36 | 0.013 |
| Cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||
| Medication (4 Groups) | −0.135 | (−0.181; −0.089) | 0.016 | −0.135 | −2.43 | 0.000 |
| Medication (4 Groups) adjusted 1,2 | 0.094 | (−0.072; 0.260) | 0.001 | −0.094 | −1.70 | 0.267 |
Multiple linear regression analysis with medication groups (n = 4) as covariate; (SR) square root transformed; (Ln) logarithmic transformed. Regression coefficient B represents the increase/decrease in the respective compound for each linear regression model. 1 Adjusted for age-groups (n = 4), sex, BMI, smoking status, frequency of dietary habits (fruit, vegetables, and juice per week), use of vitamin supplements, alcoholic drinks per month (beer, wine, other) and education as covariates, and country and season as co-factors. 2 Adjustment for interaction term [Medication Group × Age-Group]. 3 Mean differences per medication intake of back-transformed data (unit) considering the intercept of each model.4 Differences in biomarker concentrations as percentage (%) of the geometric means (Ascorbic Acid: 4.271 mg/L; Retinol: 1.705 µmol/L; Lutein: 0.276 µmol/L; Zeaxanthin: 0.045 µmol/L; β-Cryptoxanthin: 0.203 µmol/L; α-Carotene: 0.139 µmol/L; β-Carotene: 0.540 µmol/L; Lycopene: 0.701 µmol/L; α-Tocopherol: 27.9 µmol/L; γ-Tocopherol: 1.287 µmol/L; α-Tocopherol/Cholesterol: 5.127 µmol/mmol; γ-Tocopherol/Cholesterol: 0.239 µmol/mmol; Cholesterol: 5.55 mmol/L).