Table 1.
Overview of indoor positioning systems.
| System | Type | Scalability | Limitations | Error Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hlaing et al. [49] | TDoA 1 | Limited | Time | 1.34 m |
| Zafari et al. [19] | RSSI 2/SNR 3 | Yes | Does not identify the direction | 2.40 m |
| Li et al. [98] | Audio | Limited | Noise | 1.30 m |
| Kam-Wook et al. [4] | Ultrasonic/ultrasonic with TDoA 1 | Limited | Line view | 0.35–1.00 m |
| Guo et al. [5] | VLC 4 | – | 93.03% (0.20 m) | |
| Shahjalal et al. [110] | Fixed IP camera | Limited | Requires high processing | 0.10 m |
| Rao et al. [111] | Fixed IP camera | Limited | Work only horizontal plane | 0.10 m |
| Zhao et al. [113] | Mobile camera/inertial sensor/Wi-Fi 5 | Limited | Navigation direction identification | 92% accuracy (0.2 m) |
| Zou et al. [118] | Adaptive Kalman filter, VLC 4/Wi-Fi 5/inertial sensor |
Limited | Optical angles of incidence and irradiance should not exceed the field of view limitations | 0.23 m |
| Garrote et al. [107] | VLC 4/hyperbolic trilateration | No | Optical angles of incidence and irradiance should not exceed the field of view limitations | 1.10 m |
| Akiyama et al. [85] | Monte Carlo filter Inertial sensor |
No | Processing time | 1.50 m |
| Zhao et al. [59] | Particle filter Inertial sensor |
No | Processing time | 1.50 m 6.00 m (only Wi-Fi 5 signals) |
| Poulose et al. [45] | Wi-Fi 5/inertial sensor | Yes | Complexity in adding/removing network nodes | 1.53 m 5.73 m (only Wi-Fi 5 signals) |
| Li et al. [20] | Camera/RFID 7 | Yes | Distance | 96.6% |
| Cheng et al. [114] | Kalman filter Inertial/camera (stereovision) |
No | Insufficient acquisition of visual information during displacement | 0.50 m |
| Llorca et al. [115] | Wi-Fi 5/RFID 6/BLE 7/inertial/camera | Yes | Distance | - |
| Li et al. [20] | Camera 3D/inertial sensors/RFID 6 | No | High processing and network consumption, interference from other sources emitting infrared signals | 96% |
| Martin et al. [105] | Infrared sensor/camera | No | High computational cost, interference from other sources emitting infrared signals | 0.70 m |
| Hlaing et al. [49] | TDoA 1 | Limited | Time | 1.50 m |
| Gala et al. [130] | Wi-Fi 5 | Limited | Requires additional infrastructure | 3.0 m |
| Correa et al. [42] | Wi-Fi 5/inertial | Yes | Fluctuations in Wi-Fi 5 values and cumulative error of inertial sensors | 1.4 m |
| Palumbo et al. [56] | RSSI 2 | Yes | Distance | 1.8 m |
| Lin et al. [62] | BLE 7/proximity | Yes | Requires additional infrastructure | 97.22% |
| Bolic et al. [65] | RFID 6/proximity | Yes | Passive RFID 6 tags cannot perform complex operations, such as proximity detection and location | 0.32 m |
| Zafari et al. [19] | Fingerprinting | Limited | High computational cost to add/remove records | 2.0–69.0 m |
| Han et al. [131] | Fingerprinting | Limited | Room layout affects signal strength | 3.0–9.0 m |
| Youssef et al. [77] | Fingerprinting | Limited | High level of complexity for tracking multiple targets | 1.4 m |
| Kuang et al. [8] | Magnetic fingerprinting | Limited | Motion estimate error | 2.5 m |
| Norrdine et al. [132] | Inertial | Yes | Cumulative error of inertial sensors | 0.3–1.2 m |
| Teng et al. [12] | Inertial | Limited | Cumulative error of inertial sensors | 1.0–2.0 m |
| Li et al. [120] | RSSI 2, inertial (SHS 8) | Yes | Requires additional infrastructure, has low accuracy, electromagnetic interference, low security, and long response | 4.00 m |
| Shen et al. [119] | RSSI 2, inertial | Yes | Fluctuations in Wi-Fi 5 values and cumulative error of inertial sensors | 1.35 m |
| Fang et al. [72] | ZigBee | No | Requires additional infrastructure | 98.67% (1.25 m from the reference point) |
| Liu et al. [126] | RSSI 2, inertial | Limited | Requires additional infrastructure, has low accuracy, need to recalibrate | 0.8–3.0 m |
| Galioto et al. [23] | Mobile camera, inertial | Limited | Cumulative error of inertial sensors, Optical angles of incidence and irradiance should not exceed the field of view limitations | 92.01% (1.48 m from the reference point) |
| Caraiman et al. [52] | Kalman filter Inertial, camera (stereovision) |
Limited | Cumulative error of inertial sensors | 0.15 m |
| Simoes et al. [128] | Kalman filter camera (stereovision) |
No | Lateral perception failure above 15 degrees | 0.33 m (horizontal plane), 0.20 m (vertical plane) |
| Simoes et al. [129] | RSSI 2, inertial, Camera Kalman filter, Particle filter |
Yes | High level of complexity for tracking multiple targets | 0.108 m, 0.186 rad |
| Li et al. [127] | RSSI 2, Fingerprinting | Yes | Time, Requires additional infrastructure | 88.0% (1.60 m from the reference point |
1 TDoA—Time Difference of Arrival 2 RSSI—Received Signal Strength Indication 3 SNR—Signal-to-Noise Ratio 4 VLC—Visible Light Communications 5 Wi-Fi—Wireless Fidelity 6 RFID—Radio-Frequency Identification 7 BLE—Bluetooth Low-Energy 8 SHS—Step and Heading Systems.